What are the common causes of nail abnormalities. How can different nail conditions be identified. What treatment options are available for various nail disorders. When should you seek medical attention for nail problems. How do systemic diseases affect nail health.

Understanding Nail Structure and Function

Nails are more than just cosmetic features; they serve important protective and functional roles. Composed primarily of keratin, nails shield the sensitive fingertips and toes from injury while enhancing fine motor skills and sensory perception. The nail unit consists of several parts:

• Nail plate: The visible, hard part of the nail
• Nail bed: The skin beneath the nail plate
• Nail matrix: The area where new nail cells are produced
• Cuticle: The protective seal between the nail and surrounding skin
• Lunula: The white, half-moon shape at the base of the nail

Understanding the structure and function of nails is crucial for recognizing abnormalities and maintaining overall nail health. Changes in nail appearance or texture can often indicate underlying health issues or environmental factors affecting nail growth.

Common Types of Nail Abnormalities

Nail abnormalities can manifest in various ways, affecting the color, shape, texture, or thickness of fingernails and toenails. Some of the most frequently observed nail conditions include:

Beau’s Lines

What are Beau’s lines? Beau’s lines are horizontal depressions across the fingernail, often resulting from temporary interruptions in nail growth. These lines can occur after illness, injury to the nail, eczema around the nail, during chemotherapy, or due to nutritional deficiencies.

Koilonychia (Spoon Nails)

Koilonychia is characterized by abnormally shaped fingernails that are thin, curved inward, and have raised ridges. This condition is frequently associated with iron deficiency anemia, but can also occur due to other factors such as trauma or certain occupational exposures.

Leukonychia

Leukonychia refers to white streaks or spots on the nails. While often harmless and caused by minor injuries to the nail matrix, leukonychia can sometimes be indicative of underlying health issues or medication side effects.

Onycholysis

In onycholysis, the nail becomes loose and may detach from the nail bed. This condition can be caused by trauma, fungal infections, psoriasis, or certain medications. When nails are not firmly attached, they become more susceptible to damage, and debris can accumulate beneath them.

Yellow Nail Syndrome

Yellow nail syndrome is characterized by thickened, slow-growing nails with a yellow to yellow-green discoloration. The nails often lack a cuticle and may be loose or detached. This condition is most commonly associated with lung disorders and lymphedema.

Causes of Nail Abnormalities

Nail abnormalities can arise from a wide range of factors, including:

Injuries and Trauma

Physical damage to the nail or surrounding tissue can lead to various abnormalities. Crushing injuries to the nail bed may result in permanent deformity, while chronic picking or rubbing of the skin behind the nail can cause median nail dystrophy, characterized by a lengthwise split or ridged appearance of the thumbnails.

Infections

Fungal, bacterial, and viral infections can all affect nail health and appearance. Fungal infections may cause changes in nail color, texture, and shape. Bacterial infections can lead to discoloration, pain, and in severe cases, nail loss. Viral warts can alter nail shape or cause ingrown skin under the nail.

Systemic Diseases

Many internal diseases can manifest through changes in nail appearance. For instance, psoriasis often causes nail pitting and discoloration, while diabetes can lead to yellowing and thickening of the nails. Certain heart conditions may result in splinter hemorrhages, appearing as red streaks in the nail bed.

Nutritional Deficiencies

Inadequate intake of certain nutrients can impact nail health. Iron deficiency, for example, is strongly associated with koilonychia. Low levels of zinc and other minerals can contribute to brittle nails and slow growth.

Diagnosing Nail Abnormalities

Accurate diagnosis of nail abnormalities often requires a combination of clinical examination and specialized tests. Healthcare providers may employ the following methods:

• Visual inspection and patient history
• Nail clippings for microscopic examination or culture
• Blood tests to check for underlying systemic conditions or nutritional deficiencies
• Nail biopsy in cases where malignancy is suspected

How can patients assist in the diagnostic process? Keeping a detailed record of nail changes, including onset, progression, and any associated symptoms, can greatly aid healthcare providers in reaching an accurate diagnosis.

Treatment Options for Nail Disorders

The treatment of nail abnormalities depends on the underlying cause and may include:

Topical Medications

Antifungal creams, ointments, or nail lacquers are often prescribed for fungal infections. Topical corticosteroids may be used to manage inflammatory conditions affecting the nails.

Oral Medications

Systemic antifungal medications may be necessary for severe or resistant fungal infections. Antibiotics are prescribed for bacterial infections, while nutritional supplements can address deficiencies contributing to nail problems.

Procedural Interventions

In some cases, nail removal may be required for severe infections or to allow for direct application of medications to the nail bed. Laser therapy is emerging as a treatment option for certain fungal infections.

Lifestyle Modifications

Simple changes in nail care habits can often improve nail health. These may include:

• Keeping nails clean and dry
• Avoiding prolonged exposure to water or harsh chemicals
• Using moisturizers to prevent brittleness
• Wearing protective gloves during manual work
• Maintaining a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients

Prevention of Nail Abnormalities

While not all nail problems can be prevented, many can be avoided or minimized through proper nail care and overall health maintenance. Key preventive measures include:

• Practicing good hygiene to reduce the risk of infections
• Avoiding trauma to the nails and surrounding skin
• Maintaining a balanced diet to ensure adequate nutrition
• Managing underlying health conditions that may affect nail health
• Using appropriate protective equipment in occupational settings
• Avoiding prolonged use of nail polish and artificial nails

How often should nails be inspected for signs of abnormalities? Regular self-examination of nails, ideally weekly, can help detect changes early, allowing for prompt intervention when necessary.

When to Seek Medical Attention

While many nail abnormalities are benign and may resolve on their own, certain signs warrant medical evaluation:

• Persistent changes in nail color, shape, or texture
• Pain, swelling, or redness around the nails
• Nails that separate from the nail bed
• Thickening or thinning of nails
• Dark streaks or spots under the nails
• Nail changes accompanied by other systemic symptoms

Early intervention can prevent complications and improve treatment outcomes for many nail disorders. Healthcare providers can assess whether nail changes are indicative of localized issues or signs of underlying systemic conditions requiring further investigation.

Impact of Nail Abnormalities on Quality of Life

Nail disorders can have significant psychological and social impacts, often extending beyond physical discomfort. Patients may experience:

• Reduced self-esteem and confidence
• Social embarrassment and withdrawal
• Limitations in daily activities or occupational performance
• Anxiety about potential underlying health issues

How can the psychosocial impact of nail abnormalities be addressed? A holistic approach to treatment, including psychological support and patient education, can help individuals cope with the emotional aspects of nail disorders while managing the physical symptoms.

Understanding the importance of nail health and recognizing abnormalities early can contribute to overall well-being and quality of life. By maintaining good nail care practices, seeking timely medical attention when needed, and addressing both the physical and emotional aspects of nail disorders, individuals can promote healthy nails and minimize the impact of nail abnormalities on their daily lives.

Nail abnormalities Information | Mount Sinai

Beau lines; Fingernail abnormalities; Spoon nails; Onycholysis; Leukonychia; Koilonychia; Brittle nails

Nail abnormalities are problems with the color, shape, texture, or thickness of the fingernails or toenails.

A paronychia is an infection around the nail. Many organisms can cause a paronychia. This particular case is caused by the yeast-like organism Candida. Note the inflammation (red, swollen area) at the base of the nail and the changes that are apparent in the nail itself.

Nails may exhibit many different abnormalities. In the condition known as koilonychia, the nails are flattened and have concavities. This condition may be associated with iron deficiency.

In onycholysis the nails become loose. They may even detach from the nail bed. When not held firmly in place, the nails are rapidly damaged and debris collects beneath them.

White nail syndrome may also be called leukonychia. Leukonychia can occur with arsenic poisoning, heart disease, renal failure, pneumonia, or hypoalbuminemia.

Yellow nail syndrome is characterized by yellow nails that lack a cuticle, grow slowly, and are loose or detached (onycholysis). Yellow nail syndrome is most commonly associated with lung disorders, and with lymphedema.

Internal diseases and nutritional deficits can cause changes in the appearance of the nails.

Yellow nails are seen in the ‘yellow nail syndrome’ in which there is thickening and yellow to yellow-green discoloration of all nails. Lymphedema, especially of the ankles, and compromised respiration may be present. The nails may also be over-curved both transversely and longitudinally. Lunulae and cuticles may also be lost.

Like the skin, the fingernails are a reflection of a person’s state of health. Low levels of zinc and iron as well as thyroid problems can cause brittle nails. However, brittle nails are often a normal result of aging.

Considerations

Like the skin, the fingernails tell a lot about your health:

• Beau lines are depressions across the fingernail. These lines can occur after illness, injury to the nail, eczema around the nail, during chemotherapy for cancer, or when you do not get enough nutrition.
• Brittle nails are often a normal result of aging. They can also be due to certain diseases and conditions.
• Koilonychia is an abnormal shape of the fingernail. The nail has raised ridges and is thin and curved inward. This disorder is associated with iron deficiency anemia.
• Leukonychia is white streaks or spots on the nails often due to drugs or disease.
• Pitting is the presence of small depressions on the nail surface. Sometimes the nail is also crumbling. The nail can become loose and sometimes falls off. Pitting is associated with psoriasis and alopecia areata.
• Ridges are tiny, raised lines that develop across or up and down the nail.

Causes

Injury:

• Crushing the base of the nail or the nail bed may cause a permanent deformity.
• Chronic picking or rubbing of the skin behind the nail can cause median nail dystrophy, which gives a lengthwise split or ridged appearance of the thumbnails.
• Long-term exposure to moisture or nail polish can cause nails to peel and become brittle.

Infection:

• Fungus or yeast cause changes in the color, texture, and shape of the nails.
• Bacterial infection may cause a change in nail color or painful areas of infection under the nail or in the surrounding skin. Severe infections may cause nail loss. Paronychia is an infection around the nailfold and cuticle.
• Viral warts may cause a change in the shape of the nail or ingrown skin under the nail.
• Certain infections (especially of the heart valve) may cause red streaks in the nail bed (splinter hemorrhages).

Diseases:

• Disorders that affect the amount of oxygen in the blood (such as heart problems and lung diseases including cancer or infection) may cause clubbing.
• Kidney disease can cause a build-up of nitrogen waste products in the blood, which can damage nails.
• Liver disease can damage nails.
• Thyroid diseases such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism may cause brittle nails or splitting of the nail bed from the nail plate (onycholysis).
• Severe illness or surgery may cause horizontal depressions in the nails Beau lines.
• Psoriasis may cause pitting, splitting of the nail plate from the nail bed, and chronic (long-term) destruction of the nail plate (nail dystrophy).
• Other conditions that can affect the appearance of the nails include systemic amyloidosis, malnutrition, vitamin deficiency, and lichen planus.
• Skin cancers near the nail and fingertip can distort the nail. Subungual melanoma is a potentially deadly cancer that will normally appear as a dark streak down the length of the nail.
• Hutchinson sign is a darkening of the cuticle associated with a pigmented streak and may be a sign of an aggressive melanoma.

Poisons:

• Arsenic poisoning may cause white lines and horizontal ridges.
• Silver intake can cause a blue nail.

Medicines:

• Certain antibiotics can cause lifting of the nail from the nail bed.
• Chemotherapy medicines can affect nail growth.

Normal aging affects the growth and development of the nails.

Home Care

To prevent nail problems:

• DO NOT bite, pick, or tear at your nails (in severe cases, some people may need counseling or encouragement to stop these behaviors).
• Keep hangnails clipped.
• Wear shoes that do not squeeze the toes together, and always cut toenails straight across along the top.
• To prevent brittle nails, keep the nails short and do not use nail polish. Use an emollient (skin softening) cream after washing or bathing.

Bring your own manicure tools to nail salons and DO NOT allow the manicurist to work on your cuticles.

Using the vitamin biotin in high doses (5,000 micrograms daily) and clear nail polish that contains protein can help strengthen your nails. Ask your provider about medicines that help with abnormal-appearing nails. If you have a nail infection, you may be prescribed antifungal or antibacterial drugs.

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if you have:

• Blue nails
• Clubbed nails
• Distorted nails
• Horizontal ridges
• Pale nails
• White lines
• White color under the nails
• Pits in your nails
• Peeling nails
• Painful nails
• Ingrown nails

If you have splinter hemorrhages or Hutchinson sign, see the provider immediately.

What to Expect at Your Office Visit

The provider will look at your nails and ask about your symptoms. Questions may include whether you injured your nail, if your nails are constantly exposed to moisture, or whether you are always picking at your nails.

Tests that may be ordered include x-rays, blood tests, or examination of parts of the nail or the nail matrix in the laboratory.

American Academy of Dermatology website. 12 nail changes a dermatologist should examine. www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/nail-care-secrets/basics/nail-changes-dermatologist-should-examine. Accessed July 23, 2021.

Andre J, Sass U, Theunis A. Diseases of the nails. In: Calonje E, Brenn T, Lazar AJ, Billings SD, eds. McKee’s Pathology of the Skin with Clinical Correlations. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2020:chap 23.

Tosti A. Diseases of hair and nails. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 26th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2020:chap 413.

Last reviewed on: 6/19/2021

Reviewed by: Ramin Fathi, MD, FAAD, Director, Phoenix Surgical Dermatology Group, Phoenix, AZ. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.

Clubbing of the fingers or toes Information | Mount Sinai

Clubbing

Clubbing is changes in the areas under and around the toenails and fingernails that occur with some disorders. The nails also show changes.

Clubbing may result from chronic low blood-oxygen levels. This can be seen with cystic fibrosis, congenital cyanotic heart disease, and several other diseases. The tips of the fingers enlarge and the nails become extremely curved from front to back.

Clubbed fingers is a symptom of disease, often of the heart or lungs which cause chronically low blood levels of oxygen. Diseases which cause malabsorption, such as cystic fibrosis or celiac disease can also cause clubbing.

Considerations

Common symptoms of clubbing:

• The nail beds soften. The nails may seem to “float” instead of being firmly attached.
• The nails form a sharper angle with the cuticle.
• The last part of the finger may appear large or bulging. It may also be warm and red.
• The nail curves downward so it looks like the round part of an upside-down spoon.

Clubbing can develop quickly, often within weeks. It also can go away quickly when its cause is treated.

Causes

Lung cancer is the most common cause of clubbing. Clubbing often occurs in heart and lung diseases that reduce the amount of oxygen in the blood. These may include:

• Heart defects that are present at birth (congenital)
• Chronic lung infections that occur in people with bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, or lung abscess
• Infection of the lining of the heart chambers and heart valves (infectious endocarditis). This can be caused by bacteria, fungi, or other infectious substances
• Lung disorders in which the deep lung tissues become swollen and then scarred (interstitial lung disease)

Other causes of clubbing:

• Celiac disease
• Cirrhosis of the liver and other liver diseases
• Dysentery
• Graves disease
• Overactive thyroid gland
• Other types of cancer, including liver, gastrointestinal, Hodgkin lymphoma

When to Contact a Medical Professional

If you notice clubbing, call your health care provider.

What to Expect at Your Office Visit

A person with clubbing often has symptoms of another condition. Diagnosing that condition is based on:

• Family history
• Medical history
• Physical exam that looks at the lungs and chest

The provider may ask questions such as:

• Do you have any trouble breathing?
• Do you have clubbing of the fingers, toes, or both?
• When did you first notice this? Do you think it is getting worse?
• Does the skin ever have a blue color?
• What other symptoms do you have?

The following tests may be done:

• Arterial blood gas
• Chest CT scan
• Chest x-ray
• Echocardiogram
• Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• Pulmonary function tests

There is no treatment for the clubbing itself. The cause of clubbing can be treated, however.

Drake WM, Chowdhury TA. General patient examination and differential diagnosis. In: Glynn M, Drake WM, eds. Hutchison’s Clinical Methods. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018:chap 2.

Fajardo E, Davis JL. History and physical examination. In: Broaddus VC, Ernst JD, King TE, Lazarus SC, Sarmiento KF, Schnapp LM, Stapleton RD, eds. Murray and Nadel’s Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2022:chap 18.

Kliegman RM, St. Geme JW, Blum NJ, Shah SS, Tasker RC, Wilson KM. Cyanotic congenital heart lesions: lesions associated with decreased pulmonary blood flow. In: Kliegman RM, St. Geme JW, Blum NJ, Shah SS, Tasker RC, Wilson KM, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 21st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2020:chap 457.

Last reviewed on: 5/24/2021

Reviewed by: Neil K. Kaneshiro, MD, MHA, Clinical Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.

90,000 weapons of the Mongols as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the XIV-XV centuries. › SPbU Researchers Portal

Standard

Visualization of the “Other”: Mongolian weapons as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the 14th-15th centuries. / Shishka, Evgeny Alexandrovich.

In: 10 BODY, No. 7, 2021, p. 107-113.

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Harvard

Shishka, EA 2021, ‘Visualization of the “Other”: Mongolian weapons as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the 14th-15th centuries’, 10 BODY , no. 7, pp. 107-113.

APA

Shishka, E. A. (2021). Visualization of the “Other”: Mongols’ Weapons as an Ethnic and Social Marker in French Miniatures of the 14th-15th Centuries. 10 BODY , ( 7), 107-113.

Vancouver

EA bump. Visualization of the “Other”: Mongols’ Weapons as an Ethnic and Social Marker in French Miniatures of the 14th-15th Centuries. 10 BODY. 2021;(7):107-113.

Author

Shishka, Evgeny Alexandrovich. / Visualization of the “Other”: Mongolian weapons as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the XIV-XV centuries. In: 10 BODY. 2021; no. 7.pp. 107-113.

BibTeX

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title = “Visualization of the {“}Other{“}: Mongols’ weapons as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the 14th-15th centuries”, 900 07

abstract = “In this article various types of weapons are considered as the most important visual elements of the pictorial image of the Mongol conquerors and markers of the “friend/foe” categories in the era of the Gothic miniature. museums of the Russian Federation, the United States and European countries.Comparison of pictorial monuments with Latin Old French and Armenian written sources allows us to state that in medieval book miniatures the image of weapons had its own cultural code, playing the role of a social and ethnic marker. In relation to the Mongols, the image of various types of weapons could embody some textual descriptive characteristics in a more condensed form – skillful archery; sacredness of the highest khan power, social stratigraphy of nomadic society. Also in this article it is noted that the depicted weapons could act as a marker of “other” or “foreign”, emphasizing the eastern origin, heterodoxy and heterodoxy of the Mongols.”,

keywords = “Mongolian Empire, Europe, Middle Ages, book miniatures, medieval art, imalology, Mongols”,

author = “Shishka, {Evgeny Aleksandrovich}”,

year = “2021”,

language = ” russian”,

pages = “107–113”,

journal = “10 KORPUS”,

publisher = “Dmitry Vladimirovich Burdakov”,

number = “7”,

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T1 – Visualization of the “Other”: Mongolian weapons as an ethnic and social marker in French miniatures of the XIV-XV centuries.

AU – Evgeny Aleksandrovich

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Y1 – 2021

N2 – this article discusses various types of weapons, as the most important visual elements of the visual image of the Mongolian conquerors and markers of the categories of “their/alien” in the era of the Gothic miniature . The source base of the study is primarily iconographic sources – 15 illuminated (illuminated) French manuscripts stored in the funds of the National Libraries and Museums of the Russian Federation, the USA and European countries. A comparison of pictorial monuments with Latin Old French and Armenian written sources allows us to state that in medieval book miniatures the image of weapons had its own cultural code, playing the role of a social and ethnic marker. In relation to the Mongols, the image of various types of weapons could embody some textual descriptive characteristics in a more concise form – the skillful ability to shoot from a bow; sacredness of the highest khan power, social stratigraphy of nomadic society. Also in this article it is noted that the depicted weapons could act as a marker of “other” or “foreign”, emphasizing the eastern origin, heterodoxy and heterodoxy of the Mongols.

AB – This article discusses various types of weapons as the most important visual elements of the pictorial image of the Mongol conquerors and markers of the “friend / foe” categories in the era of the Gothic miniature. The source base of the study is primarily iconographic sources – 15 illuminated (illuminated) French manuscripts stored in the funds of the National Libraries and Museums of the Russian Federation, the USA and European countries. A comparison of pictorial monuments with Latin Old French and Armenian written sources allows us to state that in medieval book miniatures the image of weapons had its own cultural code, playing the role of a social and ethnic marker. In relation to the Mongols, the image of various types of weapons could embody some textual descriptive characteristics in a more concise form – the skillful ability to shoot from a bow; sacredness of the highest khan power, social stratigraphy of nomadic society. Also in this article it is noted that the depicted weapons could act as a marker of “other” or “foreign”, emphasizing the eastern origin, heterodoxy and heterodoxy of the Mongols.

KW – Mongol Empire

KW – Europe

KW – Middle Ages

KW – book miniatures

KW – medieval art

KW – imalology

K W – Mongols

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ID: 89367906

900 00 Big Shot

Norwegian psychologists Leif Kennar and Ellen Sandsetter explain why modern playgrounds should be much more dangerous to the health of the child.

Tags:

children

#80

ELLEN BEATHA HANSON-SANDSETTER, Professor of Psychology, Queen Maud University College for Preschool Teachers:

Do not self-medicate! In our articles, we collect the latest scientific data and the opinions of authoritative health experts. But remember: only a doctor can diagnose and prescribe treatment.

Modern society establishes new rules of the game for children – in the truest sense of the word. In my childhood, children were allowed to run around the streets and climb trees all day long. In between games, you would run home, grab a sandwich from the kitchen, and run outside again until evening. Nowadays, children’s life is more orderly and organized, for example, in Norway 90% of children from the age of one go to kindergarten, then it is the turn of the school with the inevitable extension. Children spend all their time under strict adult control, and it is almost impossible to see them on the streets or in parks.

The illustrations are from You’re Not Alone: ​​Courage, in which photographer Andy Brown took portraits of children before and after they visited the dentist’s office where their teeth were removed under anesthesia.

I am forty years old, and the playgrounds I played on were noticeably different from modern ones. We had bungee ropes, climbing nets, high slides, step swings, and most importantly, they were all different, one might even say unique. The current sites are impersonal, similar to each other.

In 1999, when I was in graduate school, it occurred to me to conduct a study on the relevance of modern playgrounds to children’s needs. A year earlier, Norway passed a law on uniform safety standards, and many playgrounds that were built by urban communities from improvised means were closed. Those communities that had enough money to buy standard attractions brought plastic swings, low meter-high slides and stairs with stable steps, sandboxes with fungi to the playgrounds.

Of course, this was not enough for children, they began to complicate the rides: for normal development they need risk, and they will receive it in any possible way. For example, they get tired of rolling down a hill, and they start running backwards on it. Or they climb onto the roof of the fungus and jump from there until the adults see. Or jumping off the swing. Fortunately, in Norway the surface under the swings is sandy, and it is pleasant to land in the sand, but, for example, in Britain, the swings are placed on a cinder surface so that children do not jump from them at all. Of course it doesn’t help.

According to statistics, the number of children injured at playgrounds in Norway after the adoption of the law on uniform safety standards at playgrounds has not decreased and is 2.2 cases per kindergarten every year. This includes everything: bruises, scratches, broken noses and bruises, that is, those things that no normal childhood should be without. At the same time, we have identified a trend: if earlier children were injured due to allegedly insufficient safety on the playgrounds, then now they are breaking their arms and legs, trying to make “sterile” tools more interesting and, one might say, dangerous.

LEIF KENNAR, Professor of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology:

I worked with Ellen when she was writing her dissertation. My hypothesis is that the child’s desire for so-called dangerous games is a normal stage of psychological development. And if we try to protect him from all possible dangers, then we will not get a full-fledged personality. I will give a simple example. In my lectures, I often ask students if they are afraid of wasps. As a rule, everyone is afraid of this, but people who have been stung by a wasp at least once in their lives are less afraid than those who have never been stung by a wasp. In the end, each of us has hidden phobias: we are afraid of fire, water, heights, pain. And if a child never comes into contact with all of the above in his life, his phobias will only progress.

As a psychologist, for twenty years I have been working with people who are obsessed with fear. Parents, which is quite understandable, are subject to such fears much more than others. I am trying to explain that bruises and scratches do not pose any threat to the child’s life and that a lump on the head will not interfere with his development. But according to statistics, nothing more terrible than a couple of bruises or a dislocation of an arm cannot happen to a child on a playground. Lethal cases on the sites, fortunately, are extremely rare and occur in Europe no more than once in a decade.

As a child, I cut myself with a knife many times and never cut off my fingers. And a normal childhood involves overcoming fears, but not their artificial elimination. In parallel with my main job, I am a judo coach and I can always distinguish those children who were protected from dangerous games from those who were not artificially limited in development. The first do not know how to maintain balance, their coordination of movements is pretty lame. I ask them to raise their right hand – they raise their left. And the second group of children performs all tasks with incredible ease. The playground is a model of society, and you should not make it safe, like a pressure chamber. Otherwise, instead of normal children, we will grow up strange people.

Children don’t need extra security, they need adrenaline. Ellen showed me an amazing video of a boy playing in one of the merry-go-round booths designed to meet all modern security requirements. But if earlier such booths were wooden, now they are made of solid plastic, since it is believed that a piece of wood can be broken in a cunning way, and then the child will climb onto the roof of the booth. There is an episode in the video in which a boy drags a large broom to the booth, puts it in a broom and climbs onto the roof. This begs the conclusion: by caring too much about children’s safety, aren’t we achieving the opposite result? After all, how can an adult predict which path a child’s fantasy will take?

ELLEN BEATHA HANSON-SANDSETTER : In 2005, I agreed with the teachers of a dozen kindergartens that I would come to their playgrounds with a video camera. In total, I observed 70 children aged 3-5 years. My research confirmed the version that children lack the standard equipment on the playgrounds, and they are prone to looking for additional dangers. At the same time, they themselves perfectly observe security measures and will never take more risks than necessary. For example, they will never climb to the top of a tree, but will approach it gradually, overcoming the fear “step by step”. I divided my test subjects into five categories: the first ones like to climb to heights, the second ones hate to play under supervision, the third ones like to run around the playground at a terrible speed, the fourth ones love to play with dangerous objects and, finally, the fifth ones are brawlers.

The first category is the most common. Fear of heights is most common among people, they experience it from a very early age, and children, climbing a tree or the top step of a ladder, unconsciously try to overcome it. Children craving extra speed are trying to figure out where their limit is, what space is good for walking and what is good for running. Again, those who run away from adults on the playground emphasize their independence and growing up. And if earlier the guardianship of educators was necessary for them, now they feel confident in their own small forces.

If we talk about games with dangerous objects, then in the case of my research, we are talking about knives. This is a common thing in Norway: when a child is five years old, adults allow him to use a penknife. He can take it to kindergarten, cut pipes out of wooden bars. Children who like to play with knives handle dangerous objects better in adulthood than those from whom sharp objects were hidden.

And when children fight, they try to develop techniques to win any dispute and take a place in society. In terms of social life, playground fights are very important as children develop self-confidence and learn how to argue.

LEIF KENNAR : From an evolutionary standpoint, the ideal playground should be similar to the environment a child will live in as an adult. But such things were possible a thousand years ago, not now. Modern society is changing too fast, changes are unpredictable, and we can do one thing – give the child the opportunity to play the way he wants, overcoming his fears. Every parent wants his child not to climb dangerous heights, to be afraid of strangers, not to grab sharp objects. On an ideal site, all these dangers are collected in miniature. You can cover a child with cotton wool, endlessly sterilize his toys, but in the end he will grow up and face bacteria, hard ground and sharp corners.

As a child, I lived in a village near Oslo. I calmly climbed trees, cliffs and rocks, and it could not have occurred to my parents that this was dangerous. When I was six, I decided to persuade a girl I really liked to jump from a small cliff into a tree. I stood on a cliff, grabbed a branch of a tree nearest to me, quite flexible, with such red berries. I flew up, and then fell, hitting the foot of the cliff with all my might.