What are the main glands in the human body. How does the endocrine system work. What hormones do different glands produce. What are common endocrine disorders. How can you maintain a healthy endocrine system.

The Endocrine System: An Overview of Glands and Hormones

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones act as chemical messengers, regulating various bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Understanding the intricate workings of this system is crucial for comprehending overall human health and well-being.

The endocrine system plays a vital role in:

• Regulating metabolism
• Controlling growth and development
• Managing reproductive processes
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Influencing mood and emotional states
• Coordinating stress responses

Do all glands in the body belong to the endocrine system? No, there are two main types of glands in the human body: endocrine and exocrine. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts, such as sweat or saliva.

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

The human body contains several endocrine glands, each with specific functions and hormone production. Let’s explore the primary glands and their roles in maintaining bodily functions:

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a small region in the brain that acts as a crucial link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. Its primary function is to regulate the pituitary gland, often referred to as the “master gland” of the endocrine system.

Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of the brain, the pituitary gland produces and secretes numerous hormones that influence other endocrine glands and bodily processes. Some key hormones produced by the pituitary gland include:

• Growth hormone (GH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Prolactin
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. The two main thyroid hormones are:

• Thyroxine (T4)
• Triiodothyronine (T3)

Additionally, the thyroid gland produces calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium regulation and bone metabolism.

Parathyroid Glands

Four small parathyroid glands are located behind the thyroid gland. They produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood and bones.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands, situated atop the kidneys, produce several hormones essential for stress response and metabolism. These include:

• Cortisol
• Aldosterone
• Adrenaline (epinephrine)
• Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

Pancreas

The pancreas serves both endocrine and exocrine functions. As an endocrine gland, it produces insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels. The pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes as part of its exocrine function.

Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)

The ovaries in females and testes in males produce sex hormones that regulate reproductive functions and secondary sexual characteristics. Key hormones include:

• Estrogen and progesterone (ovaries)
• Testosterone (testes)

Hormone Production and Regulation

How do endocrine glands produce and release hormones? The process of hormone production and secretion is tightly regulated through feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms ensure that hormone levels remain within appropriate ranges to maintain bodily functions.

Hormone production typically follows these steps:

1. Stimulus detection: The body recognizes a need for hormonal action.
2. Hormone synthesis: Glands produce specific hormones in response to the stimulus.
3. Hormone release: The hormones are secreted into the bloodstream.
4. Target cell activation: Hormones bind to specific receptors on target cells.
5. Cellular response: Target cells carry out the appropriate actions.
6. Feedback regulation: The body monitors hormone levels and adjusts production accordingly.

Common Endocrine Disorders and Their Impact

Endocrine disorders can occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, or when the body doesn’t respond properly to hormones. Some common endocrine disorders include:

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels. The two main types are:

• Type 1 diabetes: The pancreas produces little or no insulin.
• Type 2 diabetes: The body becomes resistant to insulin or doesn’t produce enough.

Thyroid Disorders

Thyroid disorders can result in either overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism) of thyroid hormones. Common thyroid disorders include:

• Graves’ disease
• Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
• Goiter
• Thyroid nodules

Adrenal Insufficiency

Adrenal insufficiency occurs when the adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol or aldosterone. This can lead to fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure.

Growth Hormone Deficiency

A lack of growth hormone can result in stunted growth in children and various metabolic issues in adults.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders

How are endocrine disorders diagnosed and treated? Diagnosis typically involves a combination of physical examinations, blood tests to measure hormone levels, and imaging studies. Treatment options vary depending on the specific disorder but may include:

• Hormone replacement therapy
• Medications to suppress or stimulate hormone production
• Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, stress management)
• Surgery (in some cases)

Early detection and proper management of endocrine disorders are crucial for maintaining overall health and preventing complications.

The Endocrine System and Aging

As we age, the endocrine system undergoes various changes that can affect hormone production and regulation. Some age-related endocrine changes include:

• Decreased growth hormone production
• Reduced thyroid function
• Decline in sex hormone levels (menopause in women, andropause in men)
• Increased insulin resistance

These changes can contribute to age-related health issues such as osteoporosis, muscle loss, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Maintaining a Healthy Endocrine System

While some endocrine changes are inevitable with age, there are steps you can take to support your endocrine system and overall health:

• Eat a balanced diet rich in vitamins and minerals
• Exercise regularly to support metabolism and hormone balance
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques and adequate sleep
• Limit exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the environment
• Stay hydrated to support hormone transport and cellular function
• Attend regular check-ups and screenings to detect potential issues early

By understanding the intricate workings of the endocrine system and taking proactive steps to maintain its health, you can support your body’s natural hormonal balance and overall well-being.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

The field of endocrinology continues to evolve, with ongoing research promising new insights and treatment options for endocrine disorders. Some exciting areas of research include:

Personalized Medicine

Advances in genetic testing and molecular biology are paving the way for more personalized approaches to diagnosing and treating endocrine disorders. This tailored approach may lead to more effective treatments with fewer side effects.

Artificial Intelligence in Endocrinology

AI and machine learning algorithms are being developed to analyze large datasets of patient information, potentially leading to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of endocrine disorders.

Bioengineered Hormones

Researchers are working on developing bioengineered hormones that can more closely mimic the body’s natural hormone production and regulation, potentially improving treatment outcomes for various endocrine disorders.

Endocrine Disruptors and Environmental Health

Ongoing research is investigating the impact of environmental endocrine disruptors on human health, with the goal of developing strategies to minimize exposure and mitigate their effects.

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to grow, so too will our ability to diagnose, treat, and prevent endocrine disorders, ultimately leading to improved health outcomes for individuals around the world.

The endocrine system, with its intricate network of glands and hormones, plays a crucial role in maintaining our overall health and well-being. From regulating metabolism and growth to influencing mood and reproductive function, the endocrine system touches nearly every aspect of our lives. By understanding its functions, recognizing potential disorders, and taking steps to support endocrine health, we can work towards achieving optimal hormonal balance and overall wellness.

As research in the field of endocrinology continues to advance, we can look forward to more precise diagnostic tools, targeted treatments, and innovative approaches to managing endocrine disorders. This progress will not only improve the lives of those currently living with endocrine conditions but also enhance our ability to prevent and mitigate these disorders in future generations.

Ultimately, the study of the endocrine system reminds us of the remarkable complexity and interconnectedness of the human body. By appreciating this intricate system and taking proactive steps to support its function, we can work towards achieving better health and vitality throughout our lives.

The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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Functions of the endocrine glands in the human body.

Tests for hormones and their interpretation.

The human endocrine system consists of organs called endocrine glands, which regulate the work of the whole organism by releasing biologically active substances – hormones – into the circulatory system. These substances perform paramount functions in the body: they help maintain homeostasis, control growth and development, participate in metabolic processes, are responsible for responding to changes in environmental conditions, and regulate the reproductive system.

Endocrine glands include:

Thyroid. Produces hormones – thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin. These hormones are involved in metabolism, increasing its intensity, regulate growth processes in the body, increase the level of consumption of vital oxygen by organs and tissues.

Parathyroid glands. They produce parathyroid hormone that regulates the level of calcium in the body, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the motor apparatus and nervous system.

Thymus (thymus). This organ occupies a central place in the human immune system, not without reason the word “thymus” is translated from ancient Greek as “life force”. The thymus produces T-lymphocytes – immune cells that provide antiviral and antitumor protection of the body. It secretes a number of hormones into the blood: thymalin, thymosin, IGF-1, thymopoietin, which are responsible for the functional activity of the immune system.

Adrenals. They produce the so-called stress hormone – adrenaline, which is involved in the body’s response to external stressful situations. When a large amount of adrenaline is released into the blood, breathing quickens, the heart rate increases, blood vessels constrict, and the pupils dilate.

Pancreas. Is the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It produces the hormones insulin, which lowers the level of glucose in the blood, and glucagon, on the contrary, increases it.

Gonads. In women, the ovaries; in men, the testes. The hormones produced by these glands are responsible for reproductive function.

Pituitary and hypothalamus. Form the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The pituitary gland produces hormones that control almost the entire endocrine system. Among them, the most important is the growth hormone – somatotropin, which affects the growth of bones, cartilage and muscles.

Epiphysis (pineal body, or pineal gland). The organ performs important functions: it slows down growth hormones, inhibits the development of tumors, and affects sexual development. It produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which controls the water balance of the body, oxytocin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, and melatonin, a hormone that controls the sequence of sleep phases.

Based on the foregoing, we can follow the conclusion that the importance of the endocrine system cannot be overestimated – its activity extends to all organs of the body and all processes occurring in it. Therefore, all deviations from the norm in the operation of this system require immediate medical intervention.

Symptoms of hormonal imbalance

There are a lot of symptoms of malfunctioning of the endocrine glands, among them are:

• Irregular or absent menstruation in women;
• Miscarriage or infertility;
• Loss of sexual desire;
• Weight gain;
• Eruptions on the body, acne;
• Deterioration of hair and nails;
• Sleep disturbances, lethargy, increased fatigue;
• Emotional instability: tearfulness, irascibility, nervousness;
• The development of osteoporosis is a disease that leads to brittle bones.

It is worth noting that none of the above symptoms is a direct confirmation of the presence of a hormonal imbalance, but only a possible consequence. To make an accurate diagnosis, it is necessary to undergo a complete examination by an endocrinologist, which includes the method of functional diagnostics (ultrasound, MRI), as well as laboratory blood tests, which will be discussed below.

How is blood tested for hormones?

A blood test for hormones is the most indicative and informative method for detecting any pathologies in the work of the endocrine glands. However, it is important to consider that many factors influence the hormonal background: the time of day, the menstrual cycle in women, and medication. For this reason, the preparation for taking tests for a hormonal study must be taken with all seriousness. If this is neglected, then the result of the analysis may be incorrect and, at best, it will have to be retaken, and at worst, an incorrect diagnosis may be made on its basis and the wrong treatment may be prescribed, which can lead to irreparable consequences.

To prepare for donating blood for hormones, the following general rules must be observed:

• On the eve of the test, you should give up physical activity, try to avoid stressful situations, stop any physiotherapy procedures, exclude oral contraceptives, alcohol, fatty foods and products containing iodine. It is also recommended to postpone the ECG, ultrasound, x-ray examination for a while after the test.
• An important point is taking medications – it is necessary to notify the doctor who ordered the hormonal blood test about the fact of taking medications. He will decide whether to cancel or continue taking medications at the time of the test.
• An analysis for a hormonal study is given strictly on an empty stomach. Therefore, it is recommended to stop eating 12 hours before blood sampling.
• In the morning, before the test, it is forbidden to chew gum, drink tea and smoke.
• Just before donating blood, rest for 15-10 minutes.
• Women need to take into account their menstrual cycle, because. it is possible to examine the blood for some hormones only in certain periods of this cycle.
• To track the dynamics of the levels of certain hormones, a second analysis is required. It is rented at approximately the same time as the previous one, in compliance with all the above rules.

Blood sampling for analysis is carried out in the first half of the day in the morning. The biomaterial is taken from the cubital vein.

Explanation of tests

Thyroid hormones

Triiodothyronine , or T3 – gives a general assessment of the work of the thyroid gland. This hormone is determined both in free form (norm: from 2.6 to 5.7 pmol/l.), And in the serum state, (general form; norm: from 1.3 to 2.7 nmol/l). An increase in the indicator indicates the use of narcotic substances: methadone, heroin, amphetamine, HIV infection, kidney failure, hyperthyroidism. The decrease was established with the use of androgens, danazol, dexamethasone, propranolol.

Thyroxine , or T4 – regulates energy metabolism in the body. Norm: 10.8 – 22.0 pmol / l. A low level is observed with hyperthyroidism, hemolysis. Elevated levels – when taking oral contraceptives, methodone, heroin, estrogen.

Thyroglobulin , or Tg – is prescribed for suspected malignant neoplasms. Norm: < 55 ng / ml.

Antibodies to thyroglobulin – are prescribed for suspected autoimmune thyroid diseases. Norm: 0 – 18 U / ml.

Microsomal antibodies are the most accurate indicator of the presence of autoimmune diseases. A deviation from the norm < 5.6 U / ml is proof of the aggression of the immune system to its own body.

Thyroxine-binding globulin , or TSH, is responsible for the transport of the hormones T3 and T4. Norm: from 16.8 to 22.5 mcg / ml. An increased indicator may indicate pregnancy, a lower one – with cirrhosis of the liver.

Adrenal hormones

Cortisol – regulates carbohydrate metabolism. Norm: from 230 to 750 nm / l. A low rate may be the result of chronic adrenal insufficiency, and a high one may indicate oncology or adenoma.

Aldosterone – responsible for the water-salt balance. Norms: in a horizontal position 17. 6-230.2 pg / ml; in a vertical position 25.2-392 pg / ml. Elevated levels of the hormone in the blood usually indicate an adrenal tumor.

Norepinephrine and epinephrine – normalize heart rate, blood pressure, form glucose levels. Norms: from 1.92 to 2.46 nm / l for adrenaline, from 0.62 to 3.23 nm / l for norepinephrine. An increase in indicators indicates kidney disease, Itsenko-Cushing’s syndrome, emotional and physical workload of the body, a decrease indicates pathology of the hypothalamus.

Sex hormones

Estradiol – is responsible for the production of germ cells and the proper development of pregnancy. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 200 to 285 pm/l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 440 to 575 pi/l, during menopause from 50 to 133 pm/l. A lower indicator may indicate a tumor in the ovaries, an increased indicator – with their insufficient functioning.

Testosterone is the main male hormone. Responsible for the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, stimulates the growth of muscle mass and bones. Norms: for men – 2 -10 ng / ml, for women – 0.2 – 1 ng / l.

Progesterone – ensures the proper development of the genital organs in women. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 1 to 2.2 nm / l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 23 to 30 nm / l, during menopause from 1 to 1.8 nm / l . An increase in the indicator is observed with tumors of the adrenal cortex, a decrease – with ovarian sclerosis.

Pituitary hormones

Thyroid stimulating hormone , or TSH, stimulates the production of the main thyroid hormones, so deviations from the reference values ​​​​indicate thyroid dysfunction. Norm: 0.4-4.0 honey / l.

Somatotropic hormone , or STH – a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland, is responsible for stimulating the mouth of bones, muscle mass and other organs of the human body. Norm: < 10.0 ng / ml. Exceeding the value of the established norm indicates gigantism, acromegaly.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone , or ACTH – stimulates the synthesis of hormones in the adrenal cortex. Norm: < 46 pg / ml. Deviations from the norm are observed in Itsenko-Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, as well as in other disorders of the adrenal glands.

Prolactin is a hormone responsible for the growth of the mammary glands in women and the functioning of the prostate in men. The norm for the stronger sex is 100 – 265 mcg / l, for the fair sex – from 130 to 540 skg / l during the childbearing period.

Follicle-stimulating hormone , FSH – stimulates the growth of follicles in women, is responsible for the functioning of the seminiferous tubules in men. The norm in women: in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) from 1.37 – 9.90 IU / l, in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) from 1. 09 – 9.20 IU / ml, during menopause from 29, 5 to 55 mU / l, with ovulation from 2.7 to 6.7 mU / ml. The norm for men: 0.95 – 11.95 mU / ml.

Luteinizing hormone , or LH – stimulates the production of testosterone in men, progesterone in women. Normal values ​​for men: from 1.14 to 8.75 mU / ml. Norm for women: in the follicular phase from 1.68 to 15.00 mU / ml, in the ovulatory phase from 21.90 – 56.60 mU / ml, in the luteal phase: 0.61 – 16.30 mU / ml, in postmenopausal women from 14.20 – 52.30 mU / ml. Deviations from normal values ​​in both sexes indicate dysfunction of the gonads.

Human glands – classification and functions

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Total ratings received: 1281.

Human glands are responsible for the regulation of physiological processes. These are specialized organs that secrete active substances. We talk about the types of human glands and their functions in this article.

The material was prepared jointly with the teacher of the highest category Shcherban Larisa Stepanovna.

Experience as a biology teacher – more than 19 years.

Species

Hormones are biologically active organic substances that bind to cell receptors and affect their vital functions of the body. Hormones promote growth and development, regulate life processes. A secret is a liquid containing active substances or waste products of a cell. Secrets are secreted on the surface of organs or in the cavity, hormones are released into the blood.

Classification of glands depending on the secreted fluids includes three types:

• endocrine or endocrine glands – secreted hormone enters the blood;
• exocrine or external secretion glands – the secret is secreted on the surface of organs or in their cavity, they have ducts;
• mixed secretion – glands secrete hormones into the blood and secretions into the ducts.

Endocrine glands, unlike exocrine glands, do not have ducts; hormones are secreted into the blood directly from the cells. Glands of mixed secretion have both ducts and secretory cells.

Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands secrete hormones. Their main function is the humoral regulation of human physiology.

Rice. 1. Endocrine glands.

Glands related to the endocrine system are described in the table.

The thymus is greatly reduced in size towards the end of life. Most developed in children.

Exocrine glands

Endocrine or exocrine glands include:

• salivary – are in the oral cavity, produce saliva;
• gastric – secretes gastric juice, located in the epithelium of the stomach;
• intestinal – located in the small intestine, secrete enzymes, leukocytes, mucus, amino acids that promote digestion;
• liver – located on the right side of the abdominal cavity, secretes bile, which promotes the breakdown of fats;
• greasy – located in the dermis, secrete sebum, which makes the skin elastic and waterproof;
• sweat – located in the dermis, they secrete sweat, consisting of water, mineral salts, urea, which helps to cool the skin surface;
• lacrimal – located in the upper outer corner of the eye, secrete tears that wet the eyeball;
• milky – located at the nipples of a woman, they secrete milk.

Rice. 2. Exocrine glands.

The liver is the largest gland of vertebrates.

Glands of mixed secretion

Glands of mixed secretion include the digestive gland – the pancreas – and the gonads &ndash: ovaries and testicles.

Rice. 3. Glands of mixed secretion.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes and promotes the digestion of food, as well as a number of hormones – glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, which affects carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar levels.

Sex glands do not produce secrets, but sex cells. The ovaries produce eggs, and the testicles produce sperm. In addition, the sex glands release hormones into the blood. There are two groups of female hormones:

• estrogens affecting the functioning of the uterus;
• gestagens regulating the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, childbirth.

The testicles, the male gonads, produce androgens responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in men.