What is a hematocrit test. How is a hematocrit test performed. Why might a doctor order a hematocrit test. What do hematocrit results indicate. How do hematocrit levels affect overall health. When should you be concerned about hematocrit levels. How can you improve your hematocrit levels naturally.

The Importance of Hematocrit in Assessing Blood Health

Hematocrit is a crucial component of blood analysis that provides valuable insights into an individual’s overall health. This test measures the proportion of red blood cells in the total blood volume, offering a window into the body’s oxygen-carrying capacity and potential underlying conditions. Understanding the significance of hematocrit levels can help both healthcare professionals and patients make informed decisions about their health and treatment options.

What exactly is a hematocrit test?

A hematocrit test is a simple blood test that measures the percentage of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in a person’s total blood volume. It is typically part of a complete blood count (CBC) and is often performed alongside other blood tests to provide a comprehensive picture of an individual’s blood health.

How is the test conducted?

The hematocrit test is performed by drawing a small sample of blood from a vein, usually in the arm. The sample is then analyzed in a laboratory using specialized equipment. The process involves centrifuging the blood sample to separate the red blood cells from the plasma and other components. The ratio of red blood cells to the total blood volume is then calculated and expressed as a percentage.

Understanding Hematocrit Levels and Their Implications

Hematocrit levels can vary depending on factors such as age, gender, and overall health status. Normal ranges typically fall between 36% and 46% for women and 41% and 53% for men. However, it’s important to note that these ranges can differ slightly between laboratories and healthcare providers.

What can high hematocrit levels indicate?

Elevated hematocrit levels, known as polycythemia, may be a sign of various conditions, including:

• Dehydration
• Chronic lung diseases
• Congenital heart defects
• Polycythemia vera (a blood disorder)
• Living at high altitudes
• Smoking

What about low hematocrit levels?

Low hematocrit levels, or anemia, can be caused by:

• Iron deficiency
• Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency
• Chronic diseases
• Blood loss
• Bone marrow disorders
• Certain medications

The Role of Hematocrit in Diagnosing Health Conditions

Healthcare providers often use hematocrit tests as part of a broader diagnostic process. The results can help identify or rule out various health conditions and guide treatment decisions.

How does hematocrit relate to anemia diagnosis?

Anemia is one of the most common conditions associated with low hematocrit levels. When the body doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen effectively, it can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. A hematocrit test, along with other blood tests, can help diagnose anemia and determine its underlying cause.

Can hematocrit levels indicate cardiovascular health?

Yes, hematocrit levels can provide insights into cardiovascular health. High levels may indicate an increased risk of blood clots, while low levels could suggest conditions that affect the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively. In some cases, monitoring hematocrit levels can help assess the risk of stroke or heart attack in patients with existing cardiovascular conditions.

Factors Influencing Hematocrit Test Results

Several factors can affect hematocrit test results, making it essential for healthcare providers to consider the patient’s overall health and circumstances when interpreting the results.

How does hydration status impact hematocrit levels?

Hydration plays a significant role in hematocrit levels. Dehydration can cause a temporary increase in hematocrit as the blood becomes more concentrated. Conversely, overhydration can lead to a dilution effect, resulting in lower hematocrit readings. It’s crucial for patients to maintain proper hydration before the test for accurate results.

Do medications affect hematocrit readings?

Certain medications can influence hematocrit levels. For example, drugs that stimulate red blood cell production, such as erythropoietin, can increase hematocrit. On the other hand, some chemotherapy drugs or medications that suppress bone marrow function may lower hematocrit levels. Patients should inform their healthcare providers about all medications they’re taking before the test.

Preparing for a Hematocrit Test: What You Need to Know

Proper preparation can help ensure accurate hematocrit test results. While the test itself is straightforward, there are a few things patients should keep in mind.

Is fasting required before a hematocrit test?

In most cases, fasting is not necessary for a hematocrit test. However, if the test is part of a comprehensive metabolic panel or other blood tests that require fasting, your healthcare provider will provide specific instructions. It’s always best to confirm with your doctor or the testing facility about any preparation requirements.

Are there any activities to avoid before the test?

While there are no strict restrictions, it’s generally advisable to avoid strenuous exercise immediately before the test, as this can temporarily affect blood composition. Additionally, smoking can influence hematocrit levels, so it’s best to refrain from smoking for at least an hour before the test.

Interpreting Hematocrit Test Results: Beyond the Numbers

Understanding hematocrit test results goes beyond simply looking at the numbers. Healthcare providers consider various factors when interpreting the results and determining their clinical significance.

How do age and gender affect normal hematocrit ranges?

Age and gender play significant roles in determining normal hematocrit ranges. Generally, men have higher hematocrit levels than women due to the influence of testosterone on red blood cell production. Newborns typically have higher hematocrit levels, which gradually decrease as they age. Elderly individuals may have slightly lower hematocrit levels due to various factors, including decreased bone marrow function.

What other tests might be ordered alongside a hematocrit test?

Healthcare providers often order additional tests to complement hematocrit results and provide a more comprehensive picture of blood health. These may include:

• Hemoglobin test
• Red blood cell count
• Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
• Iron studies
• Vitamin B12 and folate levels
• Reticulocyte count

These tests help differentiate between various types of anemia and other blood disorders, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.

Managing Abnormal Hematocrit Levels: Treatment Options and Lifestyle Changes

When hematocrit levels fall outside the normal range, healthcare providers may recommend various treatment options or lifestyle modifications to address the underlying cause and improve overall health.

How are high hematocrit levels treated?

Treatment for high hematocrit levels depends on the underlying cause. Some common approaches include:

1. Phlebotomy (blood removal) to reduce blood volume and hematocrit
2. Hydration therapy to dilute blood concentration
3. Medications to suppress red blood cell production in certain conditions
4. Lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking or moving to lower altitudes
5. Treatment of underlying conditions, such as lung or heart diseases

What are the treatment options for low hematocrit levels?

Addressing low hematocrit levels often involves treating the underlying cause of anemia. Treatment options may include:

1. Iron supplementation for iron-deficiency anemia
2. Vitamin B12 or folate supplements for deficiency-related anemia
3. Medications to stimulate red blood cell production
4. Blood transfusions for severe cases
5. Treatment of chronic diseases contributing to anemia
6. Dietary changes to increase iron and vitamin intake

The Impact of Hematocrit Levels on Athletic Performance and High-Altitude Living

Hematocrit levels can significantly influence physical performance, particularly in athletes and individuals living at high altitudes. Understanding these effects can help optimize health and performance in various environments.

How do hematocrit levels affect athletic performance?

Hematocrit levels play a crucial role in oxygen delivery to muscles during exercise. Higher hematocrit levels can potentially improve endurance and performance by increasing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity. However, extremely high levels can also increase blood viscosity, potentially leading to negative effects on circulation and overall performance.

Some athletes have been known to engage in controversial practices like blood doping or using erythropoietin (EPO) to artificially increase their hematocrit levels. These practices are not only banned in competitive sports but can also pose serious health risks.

What is the relationship between hematocrit and high-altitude adaptation?

Living at high altitudes naturally increases hematocrit levels as the body adapts to lower oxygen levels in the air. This adaptation helps compensate for the reduced oxygen availability by increasing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity. However, individuals moving from low to high altitudes may experience temporary discomfort as their bodies adjust to the new environment.

For those living at or frequently traveling to high altitudes, monitoring hematocrit levels can be important in assessing acclimatization and overall health. Proper hydration and gradual acclimatization are key factors in managing the body’s response to altitude changes.

Hematocrit in Pregnancy: Monitoring Maternal and Fetal Health

During pregnancy, hematocrit levels undergo significant changes, reflecting the body’s adaptation to support fetal growth and development. Monitoring these changes is crucial for ensuring the health of both mother and baby.

How do hematocrit levels change during pregnancy?

Hematocrit levels typically decrease during pregnancy due to the expansion of blood plasma volume, which outpaces the increase in red blood cell production. This physiological anemia of pregnancy is normal and helps improve blood flow to the uterus and placenta. However, healthcare providers closely monitor these changes to ensure they remain within acceptable ranges.

Why is monitoring hematocrit important in prenatal care?

Regular monitoring of hematocrit levels during pregnancy helps healthcare providers:

• Detect and manage anemia, which is common during pregnancy
• Assess the risk of complications such as preeclampsia or gestational diabetes
• Ensure adequate oxygen supply to the developing fetus
• Guide nutritional recommendations and supplementation
• Prepare for potential blood loss during delivery

Pregnant women with consistently low hematocrit levels may require iron supplementation or other interventions to support a healthy pregnancy and delivery.

Emerging Research and Future Directions in Hematocrit Testing

As medical science advances, researchers continue to explore new applications and implications of hematocrit testing. These developments may lead to improved diagnostic techniques and more personalized treatment approaches.

How might artificial intelligence enhance hematocrit analysis?

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms are being developed to analyze hematocrit results in conjunction with other health data. These advanced technologies could potentially:

• Identify subtle patterns in hematocrit fluctuations that may indicate early-stage diseases
• Predict individual responses to treatments based on hematocrit trends
• Optimize blood management strategies in hospitals and blood banks
• Enhance the accuracy of hematocrit measurements in point-of-care devices

What role might hematocrit play in personalized medicine?

As the field of personalized medicine grows, hematocrit testing could become an integral part of tailoring treatments to individual patients. Researchers are investigating how variations in hematocrit levels, along with genetic and environmental factors, can inform:

• Drug dosing and efficacy predictions
• Risk assessments for various health conditions
• Customized nutrition and exercise recommendations
• Personalized strategies for managing chronic diseases

These advancements could lead to more effective and targeted healthcare interventions based on an individual’s unique blood profile.

Hematocrit Testing in Remote and Resource-Limited Settings

Access to hematocrit testing can be challenging in remote or resource-limited areas. However, innovative technologies and approaches are being developed to address this issue and improve global health outcomes.

How are portable hematocrit testing devices changing healthcare delivery?

Portable and point-of-care hematocrit testing devices are revolutionizing healthcare delivery in underserved regions. These devices offer several advantages:

• Rapid results without the need for a full laboratory setup
• Increased accessibility to diagnostic testing in remote areas
• Reduced costs compared to traditional laboratory testing
• Improved patient management and follow-up in resource-limited settings

These technologies enable healthcare workers to make timely decisions about patient care, particularly in managing conditions like anemia and dehydration.

What are the challenges and opportunities in global hematocrit testing?

While portable testing devices offer significant benefits, several challenges remain in implementing widespread hematocrit testing globally:

• Ensuring device accuracy and reliability in diverse environmental conditions
• Training healthcare workers in proper device use and result interpretation
• Establishing quality control measures in decentralized testing settings
• Integrating test results with broader health information systems

Addressing these challenges could lead to improved health outcomes in underserved populations and contribute to global efforts in combating anemia and related health issues.

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  Hematocrit

Hematocrit Lab Test Short Info

Hematocrit Test Synonyms: Packed Cell Volume, H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit), Crit, PCV, Hct

Hematocrit Lab Test procedure CPT Code: 85014

Screening for the next conditions: Anemia, Sickle Cell Anemia, Thalassemia, Myeloproliferative Neoplasms, Bone Marrow Disorders, Pre-eclampsia

Understanding of Lab Tests Results

Please visit the page about hematocrit on the

site associated with The American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) for better understanding of tests.
There you will find the most detailed and full information regarding lab tests. In “common questions” tab you will find answers on the most common questions.

In addition, you can use a special form to ask the question. It is useful, if there is no answer on your question on the web site. A laboratory scientist will answer your question. It is a part of voluntary service provided by the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science.

Related Lab Tests to Hematocrit Test :

• CBC (includes Differential and Platelets)

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• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) and Folate Panel, Serum

• Folate, Serum

• Reticulocyte Count, Automated

Hematocrit test | NCH Healthcare System

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Overview

A hematocrit (he-MAT-uh-krit) test measures the proportion of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout your body. Having too few or too many red blood cells can be a sign of certain diseases.

The hematocrit test, also known as a packed-cell volume (PCV) test, is a simple blood test.

Why it’s done

A hematocrit test is part of a complete blood count (CBC). Measuring the proportion of red blood cells in your blood can help your doctor make a diagnosis or monitor your response to a treatment.

A lower than normal hematocrit can indicate:

• An insufficient supply of healthy red blood cells (anemia)
• A large number of white blood cells due to long-term illness, infection or a white blood cell disorder such as leukemia or lymphoma
• Vitamin or mineral deficiencies
• Recent or long-term blood loss

A higher than normal hematocrit can indicate:

• Dehydration
• A disorder, such as polycythemia vera, that causes your body to produce too many red blood cells
• Lung or heart disease

How you prepare

The hematocrit is a simple blood test. You won’t need to fast before the test or make other preparations.

What you can expect

The blood sample is generally drawn with a needle from a vein in your arm. You may feel some tenderness at the site, but you’ll be able to resume normal activities afterward.

Results

Results from your hematocrit test are reported as the percentage of your blood volume that’s composed of red blood cells. Normal ranges vary substantially with race, age and sex. The definition of normal red-blood cell percentage also varies from one medical practice to another.

Generally, a normal range is considered to be:

• For men, 38.3 to 48.6 percent
• For women, 35.5 to 44.9 percent

For children ages 17 and younger, the normal range varies by age and sex.

Your hematocrit test provides just one piece of information about your health. Talk to your doctor about what your hematocrit test result means in light of the symptoms you’re experiencing and the results of other diagnostic tests.

Accuracy of test results

A number of factors can affect the outcome of a hematocrit test and yield inaccurate or misleading results, including:

• Living at a high altitude
• Pregnancy
• Significant recent blood loss
• Recent blood transfusion
• Severe dehydration

Your doctor will take into account possible complicating factors when interpreting the results of your hematocrit test. Your doctor may want to repeat the hematocrit test and do other blood tests if results provide conflicting or unexpected information.

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Update Date: 12-14-2021

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blood tests, urine tests, semen analysis, scrapings and smears, etc.

Get a quality test for antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus at MedikCity! The CMD lab will check to see if you have immunoglobulin G (IgG) in your blood. Antibodies are an indicator of how protected you are from being infected with the coronavirus by your own body. Call +7 (495) 604-12-12!

Laboratory diagnostics – the most important medical branch, without which it is impossible to imagine the work of doctors today. It facilitates the diagnosis and gives specialists the opportunity to choose the most effective treatment regimen, focusing on objective test data.

Laboratory diagnostics (including its many sections, such as: clinical biochemistry, clinical hematology, cytology, immunology, virology, microbiology, bacteriology, parasitology, etc. ) is one of the most rapidly developing branches of modern medicine.

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Laboratory diagnostics in MedicCity

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A bit about the history of the development of laboratory diagnostics

Modern laboratory diagnostics, of course, has gone far from the research medicine of the ancients, but the experience of the pioneers of the prehistoric period turned out to be invaluable and formed the basis of science. Ancient Chinese, Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman healers gradually accumulated knowledge on how to examine the patient and how to treat him, based on the information received.

A significant event in the development of ancient research science was the doctrine of “body juices”: it was assumed that improper mixing of “juices” in the body – blood, mucus (phlegm), yellow and black bile – was to blame for all diseases (later this list was significantly expanded ). Studying the characteristics of “juices”, ancient scientists deduced several types of deviations in their “mixing”, causing pathologies common in those days.

Three stages of the disease have been identified, differing in the properties of the “vital juices”. At the first stage, the “juices” became “caustic”, causing chills and fever. During the second stage, the body prepared for the expulsion of “bad juices”, and at the third (“crisis”) stage, it got rid of them (in the form of urine, feces, sputum or sweat).

Already in those days, the excretions of the body were studied – “by sight”, “by smell” and even “by taste”. So, the first experiments in studying the signs of diabetes mellitus consisted in the organoleptic analysis of the patient’s urine. More “scientific” laboratory tests have also been carried out: for example, sputum was mixed with embers, and the presence (or absence) of a fetid odor served as a certain prognostic sign.

The next leap in the development of science occurred in the second half of the 17th century. A. Levenguk invented a microscope, which allowed healers to see first blood cells, and then microorganisms.

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Why laboratory diagnostics are needed

A huge number of existing diseases, the similarity of their manifestations or, conversely, the absence in some cases of severe symptoms, as well as the individual characteristics of the course of the disease in individual patients – all these factors greatly complicate the diagnosis. Often, for this, the level of qualification and practical experience of the doctor alone is not enough; additional methods of examination are required.

With the help of a wide range of laboratory methods, it is possible to detect pathological changes occurring in the human body at the earliest stages. Specialists receive an objective picture of the patient’s health status, monitor the dynamics of the disease and the effectiveness of the prescribed treatment.

Problems solved by laboratory diagnostics:

• Accurate diagnosis;
• search for new methods for the study of biological materials;
• study using a wide range of analyzes of the functioning of all organs and systems of the body;
• detection of pathological changes at any stage;
• disease control;
• assessment of the effectiveness of therapy.

What is the subject of laboratory diagnostics

Laboratory tests are prescribed by the attending physician, depending on the specifics of the disease, gender and age, the patient’s health and complaints.

The concept of “laboratory diagnostics” includes: “collection” of biological material, its storage and transportation, direct examination and interpretation of analysis data.

The types of biological material that can be donated for research are very diverse: blood, urine, feces, sputum, saliva, semen, scrapings and smears, histology samples, etc. Biomaterial samples are sent to laboratories in a short time for analysis.

The most famous service of laboratory diagnostics, which each of us has encountered more than once, is blood test. It can be used to identify functional disorders in organs and systems, to detect signs of various (often asymptomatic) diseases and types of pathogens of infectious diseases, to determine the hormonal status, the state of immunity, and much more.

The main function of the clinical laboratory is to provide the doctor with objective data on the analysis of biomaterial and compare them with normal values ​​(normal values ​​are always displayed in the test forms).

Today, it is laboratory diagnostics that provides doctors with more than 80% of all the information necessary to determine the diagnosis and control the treatment.

In “MedicCity” you can take tests on the same day of treatment, get their results as quickly as possible and, if necessary, consult with a specialist (doctors from more than 30 referrals are available at the clinic).

So, complete blood count determines the amount of hemoglobin, the number of erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes.

Biochemical analysis examines the functions of the liver and kidneys, determines the amount of sugar and cholesterol, etc.

Serological tests detect the presence of antibodies to serious diseases such as syphilis, herpes, hepatitis, rubella, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, chlamydia, etc.

With the help of enzyme immunoassay doctors determine the degree of development of the disease and evaluate the effect of the treatment, receive information about previous diseases. In addition, a blood test determines the level of thyroid hormones, male and female sex hormones, the presence and duration of pregnancy, and much more.

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Clinic “MedicCity” cooperates with leading medical laboratories in Moscow, which perform research that meets high international standards.

Types of laboratory tests performed in “MedicCity”:

• bacteriological tests;
• biochemical tests;
• hemostasiological examinations;
• histological examinations;
• serological examinations;
• immunology, immune status;
• enzyme immunoassay;
• general clinical trials;
• PCR, DNA diagnostics;
• cytology;
• microbiological examinations;
• basic complexes;
• survey programs.

We have included many types of examinations in special subscriptions and programs, which makes our services as convenient and economical as possible for patients.

Comprehensive laboratory research programs

• Allergological examination
• Diagnosis of stomach diseases
• Diagnosis of liver diseases
• Diagnosis of kidney diseases
• Diagnosis of risks of developing cancer
• Diagnosis of carbohydrate metabolism (diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome)
• Diagnosis of urogenital infections
• Thyroid function test

9We guarantee:

• reliability of test results;
• research efficiency;
• informative research;
• confidentiality of information;
• a wide range of tests.

The value of diagnostics cannot be overestimated – it dictates the treatment strategy and largely determines its result. Using various methods of laboratory diagnostics, our doctors can not only determine the causes of the disease, but also predict its development and evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken to recover the patient.

types and indications for use

Laboratory medical tests are the basis of modern disease diagnostics. Through various methods
studies, including microscopic ones, it is possible to detect not only significant lesions of organs and tissues,
but also minimal physiological dysfunctions in the body. Due to the large number of types of analyzes, to establish
the correct diagnosis becomes easier, which is the key to successful treatment and a speedy recovery of the patient.

Main purposes of testing appointments

Medical laboratory research is carried out in order to solve the following tasks:

1. Determining the exact etiology of a disease or syndrome.
2. Early and timely detection of diseases in the initial stages, when they are still asymptomatic.
3. Determining the conformity of the main physiological indicators, the functioning of internal organs and systems
   regulated standards.
4. Observation of the course of the disease, its progression and prognosis of further development.
5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of therapeutic measures, the impact of drugs on the activity of the pathological process.

Types of medical tests

Complete blood count

This method allows you to quantify the content and percentage of cellular elements in the blood. UAC
detects the number of erythrocytes, platelets in one milliliter of material, determines the leukocyte formula, and also
hemoglobin content, ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate) and a number of other indicators.

Blood for research is taken from capillaries (from a finger) or from a vein, most often from an elbow.

The analysis does not allow to make an accurate diagnosis and, as a rule, is supplemented by other diagnostic methods. However
KLA is a screening study, with the help of which it is possible to give a general assessment of the state of the body, to identify
the presence of an inflammatory process and determine the tactics of further diagnosis and treatment of the patient.

Urinalysis

Examining urine, the diagnostician determines its transparency, density, acidity, the presence of blood cells in it,
pathogenic microorganisms and other additional inclusions. This analysis allows you to assess the state
urinary, reproductive and hormonal systems, to determine the presence of infectious and inflammatory diseases. OAM
are prescribed both as a primary diagnosis and to control the dynamics of the pathological process.

Biochemical blood test

The study evaluates the quantitative content of a wide range of blood chemicals,
the concentration of which reflects the real state and functioning of most organs and systems of the body (heart,
kidneys, liver, pancreas).

The analysis provides information on the content of glucose, urea, creatinine, liver enzymes (ALT,
AST), bilirubin, cholesterol and a number of other important indicators.

BAC is prescribed to patients for the purpose of primary detection of diseases, as well as to monitor their dynamics and control
treatment.

Bacteriological analysis

Microscopic examination of biological material (blood, feces, urine, semen, saliva, sputum, swabs from
oropharynx or from the genitals) allows you to detect normal and pathogenic flora in the studied material,
determine the type and quantitative content of microorganisms.

Bacteriological analysis is the “gold standard” for diagnosing infectious diseases. With it, you can not only
to establish the fact of the presence of a pathological process, but also to clarify the type of pathogen. And thanks to bacteriological
crops are determined by effective drugs, to which microorganisms are most sensitive.

IFA

This method of diagnostic research is based on a qualitative and quantitative assessment of specific
antibodies produced by the body in response to the introduction of pathogens (disease-causing viruses, bacteria, fungi and
parasites).

Also, using enzyme immunoassay, it is possible to determine the level of hormones in the blood for the diagnosis of endocrine
dysfunctions and the presence of tumor markers in order to detect malignant neoplasms. The method is
highly sensitive and informative, and therefore allows you to identify diseases at preclinical stages of development.

PCR

This is one of the most accurate and modern methods of laboratory diagnosis of infectious diseases.

For the purpose of conducting the study, biomaterial is taken (blood, urine, sputum, feces, etc.) and through
polymerase reaction detects in it the genetic material (RNA or DNA) of a pathogenic microorganism.

The main advantage of the analysis is its speed and high reliability of diagnosis. PCR eliminates incorrect
or false positive results, and therefore allows you to make an accurate diagnosis in the shortest possible time and determine
correct treatment strategy.

Can laboratory tests be replaced by other diagnostic methods?

Unfortunately, in modern medicine there are no similar research methods that could fully
replace laboratory diagnostics. It can only be supplemented with instrumental techniques, such as ultrasound and
x-ray scanning, electro- and echocardiography, computed and magnetic resonance imaging.

The goal and task of any research method, both laboratory and instrumental, is one – to establish the fact
the presence, extent and cause of the disease. However, each group of methods makes it possible to determine various deviations from
norms. Thus, instrumental diagnostics helps medical workers to detect the presence of pathological
formations, organic changes in the shape and structure of organs, but does not give an idea of ​​the course of biochemical
processes, hormonal status, blood composition, etc.