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Vasopressors side effects. Vasopressors: Essential Guide to Uses, Precautions, and Side Effects

by alexxlab

What are vasopressors. How do vasopressors work. When are vasopressors used. What are the common types of vasopressors. What precautions should be taken with vasopressors. What are the potential side effects of vasopressors. How do vasopressors affect pregnancy and breastfeeding.

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Understanding Vasopressors: A Crucial Class of Medications

Vasopressors are a group of powerful medications that play a vital role in emergency medicine and critical care. These drugs work by contracting blood vessels and raising blood pressure, making them invaluable in treating severely low blood pressure, particularly in critically ill patients. Since their introduction in the 1940s, vasopressors have become an essential tool in managing shock and maintaining organ perfusion during surgical procedures.

But what exactly makes vasopressors so crucial in medical emergencies? Severe hypotension, if left untreated, can lead to organ damage and even death. By rapidly increasing blood pressure, vasopressors help ensure that vital organs receive adequate blood flow, potentially saving lives in critical situations.

The Mechanism of Action

Vasopressors exert their effects through various mechanisms, primarily by stimulating specific receptors in the cardiovascular system. This stimulation leads to:

  • Vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels)
  • Increased cardiac output
  • Enhanced blood flow to vital organs

These combined effects result in a rapid and significant increase in blood pressure, helping to stabilize patients in shock or other critical conditions.

Common Types of Vasopressors and Their Applications

Several medications fall under the category of vasopressors, each with its unique properties and indications. The most commonly used vasopressors include:

  1. Norepinephrine: Often considered the first-line vasopressor for many types of shock
  2. Epinephrine: Used in severe anaphylaxis and cardiac arrest
  3. Vasopressin (Vasostrict): Effective in septic shock and vasodilatory shock
  4. Dopamine: Used in cardiogenic shock and bradycardia
  5. Phenylephrine: Preferred in certain types of hypotension, especially during spinal anesthesia
  6. Dobutamine: Primarily an inotrope, but also has vasopressor effects

How do healthcare providers choose the appropriate vasopressor? The selection depends on various factors, including the underlying cause of hypotension, the patient’s specific condition, and potential side effects. Often, a combination of vasopressors may be used to achieve the desired hemodynamic goals.

Precautions and Considerations When Using Vasopressors

While vasopressors can be lifesaving, they require careful administration and monitoring due to their potent effects. What precautions should healthcare providers and patients be aware of when using these medications?

  • Professional supervision: Vasopressors should only be administered under the close supervision of trained medical professionals.
  • Proper dosing: Accurate dosing is crucial to achieve the desired effect while minimizing risks.
  • Continuous monitoring: Patients receiving vasopressors require constant monitoring of vital signs and organ function.
  • Awareness of contraindications: Certain pre-existing conditions may increase the risks associated with vasopressor use.

Which pre-existing conditions warrant special attention when considering vasopressor therapy? Patients with the following conditions require careful evaluation before receiving vasopressors:

  • High blood pressure
  • Diabetes
  • Heart disease
  • Circulation problems
  • History of blood clots
  • Overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism)
  • Varicose veins
  • Asthma
  • Known allergies to medications

Potential Side Effects and Complications of Vasopressor Therapy

While vasopressors are essential in many critical care situations, they can also cause significant side effects. What are the most common and serious adverse effects associated with vasopressor use?

Cardiovascular Effects

  • Arrhythmias: Irregular heart rhythms can occur, ranging from mild to life-threatening.
  • Myocardial ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the heart muscle may lead to chest pain or heart attack.
  • Hypertension: Excessive blood pressure elevation can damage blood vessels and organs.

Peripheral Effects

  • Tissue ischemia: Reduced blood flow to extremities can cause skin discoloration, pain, or necrosis.
  • Extravasation: Leakage of the medication into surrounding tissues can cause severe local damage.

Metabolic Effects

  • Lactic acidosis: Increased lactate production can lead to metabolic imbalances.
  • Hyperglycemia: Elevated blood sugar levels may occur, especially in diabetic patients.

Renal Effects

  • Acute kidney injury: Reduced renal blood flow can impair kidney function.
  • Oliguria or anuria: Decreased urine output may signal kidney damage.

When should patients or caregivers seek immediate medical attention during vasopressor therapy? Any of the following symptoms warrant urgent evaluation:

  • Slow or uneven heartbeat
  • Blue lips or fingernails
  • Pain, burning, irritation, or discoloration of the skin
  • Sudden numbness, weakness, or a cold feeling anywhere in the body
  • Trouble breathing
  • Little or no urine output
  • Problems with speech, vision, or balance
  • Signs of dangerously high blood pressure (severe headache, ringing in the ears, blurred vision, confusion, anxiety, chest pain, or seizures)
  • Signs of anaphylaxis (rash, hives, chest tightness, or swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue)

Drug Interactions and Vasopressor Therapy

Vasopressors can interact with numerous medications, potentially altering their effectiveness or increasing the risk of side effects. Why is it crucial for healthcare providers to have a comprehensive understanding of a patient’s medication history before initiating vasopressor therapy?

Drug interactions can significantly impact the safety and efficacy of vasopressor treatment. Some medications may enhance the effects of vasopressors, leading to dangerously high blood pressure, while others may counteract their action, rendering them less effective. Additionally, certain drug combinations can increase the risk of cardiovascular complications or organ damage.

Which types of medications are most likely to interact with vasopressors? Some key categories include:

  • Antidepressants, particularly monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
  • Beta-blockers
  • Certain anesthetics
  • Ergot alkaloids
  • Other vasoactive substances

To ensure safe and effective treatment, patients should disclose all medications they are taking, including prescription drugs, over-the-counter medicines, herbal supplements, and recreational substances.

Vasopressors in Special Populations: Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

The use of vasopressors during pregnancy and breastfeeding requires careful consideration due to potential risks to the fetus or infant. How do healthcare providers approach vasopressor therapy in pregnant or breastfeeding patients?

Vasopressors During Pregnancy

When treating pregnant patients with severe hypotension or shock, the benefits of vasopressor therapy often outweigh the potential risks. However, the choice of vasopressor and dosing strategy may differ from non-pregnant patients. Considerations include:

  • Potential effects on uteroplacental blood flow
  • Risk of fetal bradycardia
  • Possible teratogenic effects, especially in early pregnancy

Norepinephrine and phenylephrine are often preferred in pregnancy due to their more predictable effects on uterine blood flow. Epinephrine is generally reserved for life-threatening situations such as anaphylaxis or cardiac arrest.

Vasopressors and Breastfeeding

The use of vasopressors in breastfeeding mothers raises concerns about potential transfer to the infant through breast milk. While limited data exist on the safety of vasopressors during lactation, several factors influence the approach:

  • The short half-life of most vasopressors
  • The timing of breastfeeding in relation to drug administration
  • The potential for oral absorption of the drug by the infant

In most cases, the benefits of continuing breastfeeding outweigh the theoretical risks associated with short-term vasopressor use. However, each situation requires individual assessment, and temporary interruption of breastfeeding may be recommended in some instances.

Advances in Vasopressor Therapy: Current Research and Future Directions

The field of vasopressor therapy continues to evolve, with ongoing research aimed at improving outcomes and minimizing side effects. What are some of the most promising areas of investigation in vasopressor research?

Novel Vasopressor Agents

Researchers are exploring new compounds with vasopressor properties that may offer advantages over existing medications. These include:

  • Synthetic analogues of naturally occurring hormones
  • Drugs targeting specific receptor subtypes
  • Combination therapies designed to enhance efficacy while reducing side effects

Personalized Vasopressor Therapy

Advances in pharmacogenomics and precision medicine are paving the way for more tailored approaches to vasopressor therapy. This research focuses on:

  • Identifying genetic markers that predict response to specific vasopressors
  • Developing algorithms for optimizing drug selection and dosing based on individual patient characteristics
  • Utilizing real-time monitoring technologies to guide vasopressor titration

Alternative Delivery Methods

Innovative delivery systems are being investigated to improve the safety and efficacy of vasopressor administration. These include:

  • Sustained-release formulations for more stable drug levels
  • Targeted delivery systems to reduce systemic side effects
  • Implantable devices for long-term management of chronic hypotension

Combination Therapies

Researchers are exploring synergistic combinations of vasopressors and other medications to enhance therapeutic outcomes. Areas of interest include:

  • Combining vasopressors with inotropes for improved cardiovascular support
  • Integrating vasopressors with immunomodulatory drugs in septic shock
  • Developing multi-modal approaches to shock management

How might these advancements shape the future of critical care and emergency medicine? As our understanding of shock physiology and pharmacology deepens, we can anticipate more targeted and effective vasopressor therapies. This progress has the potential to improve survival rates, reduce complications, and enhance the overall quality of care for critically ill patients.

The Role of Vasopressors in Modern Medicine: Balancing Benefits and Risks

Vasopressors remain a cornerstone of critical care medicine, playing a vital role in the management of life-threatening hypotension and shock. Their ability to rapidly improve organ perfusion can mean the difference between life and death in many clinical scenarios. However, the power of these medications also comes with significant responsibilities for healthcare providers.

What are the key considerations in optimizing vasopressor therapy? Effective use of vasopressors requires:

  • A thorough understanding of the underlying pathophysiology
  • Careful patient assessment and monitoring
  • Judicious selection of the appropriate agent(s)
  • Skillful titration to achieve hemodynamic goals while minimizing side effects
  • Integration with other supportive measures and treatments

As medical knowledge advances and new technologies emerge, the approach to vasopressor therapy continues to evolve. The future holds promise for more personalized and precise use of these powerful medications, potentially leading to improved outcomes for critically ill patients.

In conclusion, vasopressors represent a double-edged sword in medicine – capable of saving lives when used appropriately, but also carrying significant risks if mismanaged. As research progresses and our understanding deepens, we can look forward to increasingly sophisticated and tailored approaches to vasopressor therapy, ultimately benefiting patients in their most vulnerable moments.

Vasopressors – Precautions & Side Effects

This class of drugs can be lifesaving in emergency medical situations.

Vasopressors are a group of medicines that contract (tighten) blood vessels and raise blood pressure.

They’re used to treat severely low blood pressure, especially in people who are critically ill.

Very low blood pressure can lead to organ damage and even death.

These drugs can help doctors treat patients who are in shock or are undergoing surgery.

Vasopressors have been used since the 1940s. They’re commonly given in combination with medicines called inotropes (which affect cardiac muscle contraction).

Common Vasopressors

Medicines — including synthetic hormones — that are used as vasopressors include:

  • Norepinephrine
  • Epinephrine
  • Vasopressin (Vasostrict)
  • Dopamine
  • Phenylephrine
  • Dobutamine

Vasopressor Precautions

Vasopressors should only be given under the supervision of a medical professional. These are powerful drugs, and they can be dangerous if used incorrectly.

The medicines may reduce blood flow to some parts of the body.

Vasopressors are commonly given in an emergency situation, but if you can, tell your doctor if you have any of the following conditions before receiving a vasopressor:

  • High blood pressure
  • Diabetes
  • Heart disease
  • Circulation problems
  • A history of blood clots
  • An overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism)
  • Varicose veins
  • Asthma
  • Allergies to medications

Side Effects of Vasopressors

Tell your doctor if you experience any of the following serious side effects after receiving a vasopressor:

  • Slow or uneven heartbeat
  • Blue lips or fingernails
  • Pain, burning, irritation, or discoloration of the skin
  • Sudden numbness, weakness, or a cold feeling anywhere in your body
  • Trouble breathing
  • Little or no urination
  • Problems with speech, vision, or balance
  • Signs of dangerously high blood pressure (including severe headache, ringing in your ears, blurred vision, confusion, anxiety, chest pain, or seizures)
  • Signs of anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction, such as rash, hives, chest tightness, or swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue

If possible, let your doctor know about all prescription, non-prescription, illegal, recreational, herbal, nutritional, or dietary drugs you’re taking before receiving a vasopressor.

Vasopressors and Pregnancy

If possible, let your doctor (or emergency room physician) know if you’re pregnant before receiving a vasopressor.

Your doctor will have to decide whether the benefits of using these drugs outweigh the risks.

Also, talk to your healthcare provider before breastfeeding if you’ve received a vasopressor.

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Inotropes and Vasopressors – StatPearls

Continuing Education Activity

Vasopressors and inotropes are medications used to create vasoconstriction or increase cardiac contractility, respectively, in patients with shock. The hallmark of shock is decreased perfusion to vital organs, resulting in multiorgan dysfunction and eventually death. Vasopressors increase vasoconstriction, which leads to increased systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Increasing the SVR leads to increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) and increased perfusion to organs. Inotropes increase cardiac contractility, which improves cardiac output (CO), aiding in maintaining MAP and perfusion to the body. This activity describes the mode of action of inotropes and vasopressors, including mechanism of action, pharmacology, adverse event profiles, eligible patient populations, and monitoring, and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the management of conditions where vasopressors and inotropes.

Objectives:

  • Explain the mechanisms of action of various inotropes and vasopressors.

  • Review the indications for initiating inotropic and/or vasopressor therapy.

  • Outline the contraindications for initiating vasopressive and inotropic therapy.

  • Explain the importance of collaboration and communication among interprofessional team members to improve outcomes and treatment efficacy for patients receiving treatment with inotropes and vasopressors.

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Indications

Vasopressors and inotropes are medications used to create vasoconstriction or increase cardiac contractility, respectively, in patients with shock or any other reason for extremely low blood pressure. The hallmark of shock is decreased perfusion to vital organs, resulting in multiorgan dysfunction and eventually death.

Vasopressors increase vasoconstriction, which leads to increased systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Increasing the SVR leads to increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) and increased perfusion to organs. Inotropes increase cardiac contractility, which improves cardiac output (CO), aiding in maintaining MAP and perfusion to the body. The equation that connects the 2 is MAP= CO x SVR.

Indications for vasopressors and inotropes in patients with shock vary on the etiology and type of shock occurring in the patient. There are four main types of shock: hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive. Each type has its indications for vasopressors and inotropes. However, most of these medications are viable options in each scenario. Each of the major medications will be discussed briefly.

The major vasopressors include phenylephrine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and vasopressin. Dopamine is a vasopressor with inotrope properties that is dose-dependent. Dobutamine and milrinone are inotropes.[1]

Distributive shock is commonly caused by sepsis, neurogenic shock, and anaphylaxis. These types of shock are caused by a leaky or dilated vascular system that leads to a low SVR state. The goal of vasopressors in this situation is to increase the SVR by direct constriction of the vessels. 

The American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM) guidelines recognize that a MAP of 60 to 65 mm Hg is required to perfuse organs. If, after appropriate fluid resuscitation, the MAP does not improve to about 60 mm Hg, it is recommended that vasopressors be initiated. Norepinephrine is recommended as the initial vasopressor per the Surviving Sepsis Campaign recommendations. Vasopressin or epinephrine are the two recommended vasopressors to add to norepinephrine, although the evidence for these recommendations is considered weak.[2]

Neurogenic shock secondary to spinal injury or disease of the spinal cord results in a lack of sympathetic tone of the peripheral nerves and unopposed parasympathetic activation. Uninhibited vagal tone results in vasogenic and cardiogenic instability. Initial stabilization requires a fluid challenge to restore intravascular volume. If hypotension persists, vasopressors are indicated to maintain systolic blood pressure greater than 90 mm Hg or MAP 85 to 90 mm Hg for the first 7 days. Norepinephrine is recommended as the initial pressor for alpha and beta activation. Epinephrine may be added as a secondary pressor. Phenylephrine should be used with extreme caution because of the reflex bradycardia due to unopposed vagal action on the heart, which may be associated with its use.[3]

Cardiogenic shock most commonly occurs in the setting of acute myocardial infarction. The cardiac output is diminished as well as decreased diastolic blood pressure. Decreasing both CO and DBP causes increasing hypoperfusion and organ dysfunction, which leads to worsening cardiac damage. Initial management is a fluid challenge of 250 to 500 mL. Persistent hypotension requires adding inotropes or vasopressors. The AHA 2017 recommendations for cardiogenic shock state states little clinical outcome data exist despite the prevalence of use for these agents. No MAP or blood pressure minimum has been extensively studied, but a reasonable goal is a MAP of 65 mm Hg.[4] Some studies have shown that norepinephrine results in fewer dysrhythmia events compared to dopamine which has classically been the primary choice. The AHA suggests choosing vasopressors or inotropes as needed based on clinical scenarios and etiology.

Mechanism of Action

Vasopressors act to increase CO and SVR through increasing contractility and HR as well inducing vasoconstriction peripherally.[5] The main groupings of these drugs are as follows:

Catecholamines

The most common catecholamine-active medications are phenylephrine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Other agents in this class include isoproterenol, dobutamine, and dopamine. Each of these three medications has varying activity on the alpha and beta receptors. Alpha receptors are peripheral vasoconstrictors to increase SVR. Beta-1 receptors have mostly positive chronotropic (heart rate) and inotropic (contractility) effects on the heart. Beta-2 receptors act as vasodilators in many organ systems.[6][7]

Phenylephrine is a pure alpha-1 agonist, inducing peripheral arterial vasoconstriction. Reflex bradycardia may occur due to selective vasoconstriction and elevation of blood pressure. Blood pressure, MAP, and SVR are increased. [5]Norepinephrine has mixed alpha-1 and beta activity (beta-1 greater than beta-2), with slightly more alpha-1 activity than beta activity. This leads to a more significant increase in blood pressure than increased HR. Blood pressure, MAP, SVR, and CO are increased with norepinephrine.[6]

Epinephrine has essentially comparable activity on alpha-1 and beta receptors. Epinephrine increases systemic vascular resistance, heart rate, cardiac output, and blood pressure.[6][1]

Isoproterenol is an isopropylamine analog of epinephrine used in bradyarrhythmias (such as torsades des pointes) and Brugada syndrome. [7]

Dopamine is a precursor of norepinephrine and epinephrine, which acts in a dose-dependent fashion on dopaminergic receptors as well as alpha and beta receptors. At low doses, dopaminergic receptors activate renal artery vasodilation. At doses 5 to 15 micrograms/kg/min, alpha and beta-adrenergic activation increase renal blood flow, HR, contractility, and CO. At higher doses greater than 15 micrograms/kg per minute, the main effects are on alpha stimulation.[6]

Dobutamine increases CO mostly through its effects on beta and alpha stimulation. Dobutamine has an affinity for beta-1 greater than beta-2 greater than alpha. Dobutamine increases contractility and CO with minimal effects on BP.[6][1] Dobutamine is also used in cardiac stress testing.[8]

Vasopressin

Vasopressin acts on V-1 receptors to stimulate smooth muscle contraction of the vessels as well as V-2 receptors in the kidneys as an anti-diuretic. There are no inotropic or chronotropic effects. Only BP and SVR are increased with vasopressin. [6]

Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors

Milrinone is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that causes increased levels of cyclic AMP. In cardiac myocytes, this results in cardiac stimulation and increased CO. cAMP has vasodilatory effects in the smooth peripheral vessels leading to vasodilation and decreased BP. Milrinone is used to treat low CO as in decompensated HF.[9][6]

Administration

Vasopressors and inotropes are administered intravenously (IV). The method of choice for most of these medications is a continuous infusion that allows for immediate titration for desired effects. Although peripheral IVs are suitable for short-term use, adverse effects can and do occur. Although the absolute necessity for immediate central access has been recently brought into question, it is recognized that central access is the method of choice for administering vasoactive medications.[10]

Adverse Effects

Adverse effects of vasopressors and inotropes depend on the mechanism of action. For the medications that have beta stimulation, arrhythmias are one of the most common adverse effects. Some of the specific adverse effects will be described here.

Dopamine has various mechanisms and adverse effects that include hypotension, tachycardia, local tissue necrosis, and gangrene if extravasation occurs. Epinephrine can have tachycardia, anxiety, pulmonary edema, and local tissue necrosis with extravasation. Norepinephrine has similar adverse effects to epinephrine but may also include bradycardia and dysrhythmia. Phenylephrine may cause reflex bradycardia, decreased CO, local tissue necrosis with extravasation, peripheral, renal, mesenteric, or myocardial ischemia. Vasopressin may induce arrhythmias, mesenteric ischemia, chest pain, coronary artery constriction and MI, bronchial constriction, hyponatremia, and local tissue necrosis with extravasation.[7]

Adverse effects of inotropes include hypertension, hypotension, dysrhythmias, angina, and acute MI. Dobutamine, specifically, may cause hypokalemia and local tissue necrosis with extravasation. [11] Dobutamine has also been associated with increased mortality with prolonged use, likely due to its effect of increased myocardial oxygen consumption, which may limit its clinical effectiveness. Milrinone may cause elevated LFTs, thrombocytopenia, and increased mortality with long-term use.

Contraindications

Few absolute contraindications exist for vasopressors and inotropes outside of anaphylactic hypersensitivity reactions. Adrenergic agents are contraindicated with halogenated hydrocarbons like halothane during general anesthesia[6]. In certain situations, there are relative contraindications to dopamine, dobutamine, and milrinone. It is recommended dopamine not be used as the first-line vasopressor in septic shock compared to norepinephrine due to increased mortality and increased dysrhythmias.[12] Adrenergic vasopressors should be avoided in patients with pheochromocytoma or uncorrected tachyarrhythmia. Dobutamine is contraindicated in idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis. Some organizations also have dobutamine as a relative contraindication in patients with recent MI or a history of uncontrolled BP, aortic dissection, or a large aortic aneurysm. Patients taking an MAOI should have decreased doses and be monitored closely.

Monitoring

All patients requiring vasopressors or inotropes require close monitoring of vital signs, fluid status, and laboratory markers. Arterial blood pressure monitoring via catheter allows for immediate recognition of changes and allows for precise titration. Pulmonary artery catheters may be considered to assess cardiac function. Continuous cardiac monitoring for dysrhythmias is essential. For patients who can speak, frequent checks for pain at the vascular access site, chest pain, peripheral numbness, abdominal pain, and neuro checks should be performed. Evaluation of peripheral ischemia should be frequent. Laboratory markers for worsening perfusion status and multiorgan injury should be closely monitored. Vasopressin’s effect on renal function requires close monitoring of serum and urine sodium, osmolality, and fluid status. Milrinone requires monitoring of LFTs and platelet count.[6]

Toxicity

Patients currently taking a MAOI will have decreased metabolism of adrenergic vasopressors and will require lower doses to avoid toxicity.[6]

Most of the medications mentioned above are naturally occurring compounds. There are no common toxicological issues directly related to the medications, metabolites, or preparations of the medications described above.[13][14]

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Inotropes and vasopressors are commonly used in the ICU. Since the conditions they address and the effects they render can be critical, an entire interprofessional team should be involved in their ordering, dosing, and administration, as well as subsequent monitoring. While these medications are ordered by clinicians, the monitoring of the patient is done by nurses trained in critical care. Pharmacists should verify dosing and check for interactions and contraindications to their use. Besides vital signs, patient body weight, fluid status, renal function, and peripheral perfusion require continuous monitoring. A constant assessment of the patient is needed to ensure that the inotropes and vasopressors are tapered if not needed.[15][16] These examples of interprofessional coordination can improve outcomes when patients receive vasopressive and inotropic medications with fewer adverse events. [Level 5]

Review Questions

  • Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

  • Comment on this article.

References

1.

Einav S, Helviz Y, Ippolito M, Cortegiani A. Vasopressor and inotrope treatment for septic shock: An umbrella review of reviews. J Crit Care. 2021 Oct;65:65-71. [PubMed: 34090150]

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Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D, Astiz ME, Chalfin DB, Dasta JF, Heard SO, Martin C, Napolitano LM, Susla GM, Totaro R, Vincent JL, Zanotti-Cavazzoni S. Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients: 2004 update. Crit Care Med. 2004 Sep;32(9):1928-48. [PubMed: 15343024]

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Dave S, Cho JJ. StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island (FL): Feb 10, 2022. Neurogenic Shock. [PubMed: 29083597]

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van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM, Henry TD, Jacobs AK, Kapur NK, Kilic A, Menon V, Ohman EM, Sweitzer NK, Thiele H, Washam JB, Cohen MG., American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; and Mission: Lifeline. Contemporary Management of Cardiogenic Shock: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017 Oct 17;136(16):e232-e268. [PubMed: 28923988]

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Russell JA. Vasopressor therapy in critically ill patients with shock. Intensive Care Med. 2019 Nov;45(11):1503-1517. [PubMed: 31646370]

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Cooper BE. Review and update on inotropes and vasopressors. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2008 Jan-Mar;19(1):5-13; quiz 14-5. [PubMed: 18418098]

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Overgaard CB, Dzavík V. Inotropes and vasopressors: review of physiology and clinical use in cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2008 Sep 02;118(10):1047-56. [PubMed: 18765387]

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Sengupta SP, Mungulmare K, Okwose NC, MacGowan GA, Jakovljevic DG. Comparison of cardiac output estimates by echocardiography and bioreactance at rest and peak dobutamine stress test in heart failure patients with preserved ejection fraction. Echocardiography. 2020 Oct;37(10):1603-1609. [PubMed: 32949037]

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Silverman DN, Houston BA, Tedford RJ. Old Drug, New Trick? Oral Milrinone for Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction. J Am Heart Assoc. 2020 Jul 07;9(13):e017170. [PMC free article: PMC7670500] [PubMed: 32552221]

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Cardenas-Garcia J, Schaub KF, Belchikov YG, Narasimhan M, Koenig SJ, Mayo PH. Safety of peripheral intravenous administration of vasoactive medication. J Hosp Med. 2015 Sep;10(9):581-5. [PubMed: 26014852]

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Coma-Canella I. Changes in plasma potassium during the dobutamine stress test. Int J Cardiol. 1991 Oct;33(1):55-9. [PubMed: 1937984]

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De Backer D, Arias Ortiz J, Levy B. The medical treatment of cardiogenic shock: cardiovascular drugs. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2021 Aug 01;27(4):426-432. [PubMed: 33797431]

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Sionis A, Rivas-Lasarte M, Mebazaa A, Tarvasmäki T, Sans-Roselló J, Tolppanen H, Varpula M, Jurkko R, Banaszewski M, Silva-Cardoso J, Carubelli V, Lindholm MG, Parissis J, Spinar J, Lassus J, Harjola VP, Masip J. Current Use and Impact on 30-Day Mortality of Pulmonary Artery Catheter in Cardiogenic Shock Patients: Results From the CardShock Study. J Intensive Care Med. 2020 Dec;35(12):1426-1433. [PubMed: 30732522]

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Kislitsina ON, Rich JD, Wilcox JE, Pham DT, Churyla A, Vorovich EB, Ghafourian K, Yancy CW. Shock – Classification and Pathophysiological Principles of Therapeutics. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(2):102-113. [PMC free article: PMC6520577] [PubMed: 30543176]

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Annane D, Ouanes-Besbes L, de Backer D, DU B, Gordon AC, Hernández G, Olsen KM, Osborn TM, Peake S, Russell JA, Cavazzoni SZ. A global perspective on vasoactive agents in shock. Intensive Care Med. 2018 Jun;44(6):833-846. [PubMed: 29868972]

Disclosure: Danny VanValkinburgh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Connor Kerndt declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Muhammad Hashmi declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Vasopressors for hypotensive shock | Cochrane

Review question

This review attempted to obtain unbiased evidence on the effect of various blood pressure-raising drugs on the risk of death in critically ill patients with circulatory problems.

Relevance

● Circulatory shock (circulatory shock) is broadly defined as a life-threatening circulatory disorder resulting in the body’s inability to maintain blood delivery to the body’s tissues and meet oxygen needs.

● Typical signs of shock include low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, and poor organ perfusion, as evidenced by low urine output, confusion, or loss of consciousness.

● Death in the intensive care unit varies from 16% to 60%, depending on the underlying condition: treatment includes fluid replacement followed by vasopressors if necessary.

● A vasopressor is a medicine that causes an increase in blood pressure. Six vasopressors are available that have been successfully used to increase blood pressure and reverse circulatory failure in critical care. Differences in their impact on survival are discussed, there are contentious issues and controversies that need to be explored.

● The purpose of this review is to find out if any of the drugs given alone or in combination are better or worse than others.

Search date

Evidence current to June 2015.

Study profile

The reviewers found 28 randomized controlled trials involving 3497 critically ill patients with circulatory failure, of whom 1773 died. Patients were followed up for up to one year.

The following drugs, administered alone or in combination, were studied in 12 different comparisons: dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, phenylephrine, vasopressin, and terlipressin.

Main results

In summary, the investigators did not find significant differences in risk of death in any of the comparisons of different drugs administered alone or in combination when accounting for the latest reported death.

Cardiac arrhythmias were observed more often in people treated with dopamine than in people treated with norepinephrine.

Quality of evidence

The quality of the evidence was high for noradrenaline versus dopamine and very low to moderate for other comparisons.

Few large studies and studies of varying quality were consistent (uniform) among themselves.

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Translation notes:

Translation: Potapov Alexander Sergeevich. Editing: Ziganshina Lilia Evgenievna. Russian translation project coordination: Cochrane Russia – Cochrane Russia, Cochrane Geographic Group Associated to Cochrane Nordic. For questions related to this translation, please contact us at: [email protected]

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