How does the endocrine system work. What are the main glands in the human body. Which hormones do different glands produce. How do endocrine disorders affect health. What are common symptoms of hormonal imbalances.

The Intricate Network of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones act as chemical messengers, regulating various bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Understanding the endocrine system is crucial for comprehending how our bodies function and respond to internal and external stimuli.

But what exactly constitutes a gland? A gland is a specialized organ that produces and releases substances for use in the body. In the context of the endocrine system, these substances are hormones that travel through the bloodstream to target specific cells and organs, influencing their behavior and function.

Key Functions of the Endocrine System

• Hormone production and regulation
• Growth and development control
• Metabolism management
• Reproductive function oversight
• Mood and stress response modulation
• Blood sugar regulation
• Tissue function maintenance

The endocrine system’s influence extends to nearly every cell and organ in the body, highlighting its significance in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Major Glands and Their Hormonal Productions

The human body houses several glands, each with unique functions and hormone productions. Let’s explore the primary glands and their roles in the endocrine system.

Hypothalamus: The Control Center

Located in the brain, the hypothalamus serves as a crucial link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Its primary function is to regulate the pituitary gland, often referred to as the “master gland.” How does the hypothalamus achieve this? It produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary’s hormone secretion, effectively orchestrating the entire endocrine system’s function.

Pituitary Gland: The Master Conductor

The pituitary gland, situated at the base of the brain, is often called the “master gland” due to its regulatory role over other endocrine glands. It produces a wide array of hormones, including:

• Growth hormone (GH): Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
• Prolactin: Promotes milk production in breastfeeding mothers
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Regulates thyroid function
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH): Control reproductive functions
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Regulates water balance and blood pressure
• Oxytocin: Facilitates childbirth and milk ejection

Pineal Gland: The Sleep Regulator

The pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the brain, primarily produces melatonin. This hormone plays a crucial role in regulating the body’s circadian rhythm, or sleep-wake cycle. How does melatonin influence sleep patterns? It responds to light exposure, with production increasing in darkness and decreasing in light, helping to prepare the body for rest.

Thyroid and Parathyroid: Metabolism and Calcium Balance

The thyroid and parathyroid glands, located in the neck, play vital roles in metabolism and calcium homeostasis.

Thyroid Gland: The Metabolic Regulator

The thyroid gland produces two main hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones are essential for:

• Regulating metabolism
• Controlling heart rate
• Managing body temperature
• Influencing growth and development

Additionally, the thyroid produces calcitonin, which contributes to bone health by promoting calcium incorporation into bones.

Parathyroid Glands: Calcium Homeostasis

The four small parathyroid glands, located behind the thyroid, produce parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is crucial for maintaining proper calcium levels in the blood and bones. How does PTH regulate calcium? It increases calcium absorption from the intestines, reduces calcium excretion by the kidneys, and stimulates calcium release from bones when blood calcium levels are low.

Adrenal Glands: Stress Response and Metabolism

The adrenal glands, situated atop the kidneys, consist of two distinct parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. Each produces different hormones with unique functions.

Adrenal Cortex: Steroid Hormone Production

The outer layer of the adrenal glands produces several steroid hormones, including:

• Cortisol: Regulates metabolism and helps the body respond to stress
• Aldosterone: Controls blood pressure and electrolyte balance
• Androgens: Contribute to sexual characteristics and development

Adrenal Medulla: “Fight or Flight” Response

The inner part of the adrenal glands produces catecholamines, primarily epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. These hormones are responsible for the body’s “fight or flight” response, preparing the body for action in stressful situations by:

• Increasing heart rate and blood pressure
• Dilating airways for improved oxygen intake
• Redirecting blood flow to essential organs and muscles
• Releasing glucose for quick energy

Pancreas: Blood Sugar Regulation and Digestion

The pancreas is a unique organ that functions as part of both the endocrine and digestive systems. Its endocrine function primarily involves blood sugar regulation through the production of insulin and glucagon.

Insulin: The Blood Sugar Lowering Hormone

Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets. Its main function is to lower blood sugar levels by promoting glucose uptake by cells and stimulating the storage of excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles. How does insulin work? When blood sugar levels rise after a meal, insulin is released, signaling cells to absorb glucose from the bloodstream, thereby reducing blood sugar levels.

Glucagon: The Blood Sugar Raising Hormone

Glucagon, produced by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets, has the opposite effect of insulin. It raises blood sugar levels when they drop too low by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen back into glucose and release it into the bloodstream. This hormone ensures a steady supply of glucose to the brain and other vital organs, even during periods of fasting.

Reproductive Glands: Ovaries and Testes

The reproductive glands, ovaries in females and testes in males, play crucial roles in sexual development, reproduction, and the maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics.

Ovaries: Female Reproductive Hormones

The ovaries produce several hormones essential for female reproductive function, including:

• Estrogen: Promotes development of female secondary sexual characteristics, regulates the menstrual cycle, and supports pregnancy
• Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and supports fetal development
• Inhibin: Regulates follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) production

Testes: Male Reproductive Hormones

The testes primarily produce testosterone, which is responsible for:

• Development of male secondary sexual characteristics
• Sperm production
• Muscle and bone mass maintenance
• Libido regulation

Endocrine Disorders: When Hormones Go Awry

Endocrine disorders occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, or when the body doesn’t respond properly to hormones. These imbalances can lead to a wide range of health issues, affecting various bodily functions.

Common Endocrine Disorders

• Diabetes mellitus: Impaired insulin production or function
• Thyroid disorders: Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)
• Adrenal insufficiency: Inadequate production of adrenal hormones
• Cushing’s syndrome: Excess cortisol production
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Hormonal imbalance affecting ovarian function
• Growth hormone deficiency: Insufficient growth hormone production

What are the signs of an endocrine disorder? Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific gland and hormone affected, but may include unexplained weight changes, fatigue, mood swings, changes in blood pressure, and abnormal growth patterns.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders

Diagnosing endocrine disorders often involves a combination of physical examinations, blood tests to measure hormone levels, and imaging studies to visualize the glands. Treatment approaches depend on the specific disorder but may include:

• Hormone replacement therapy
• Medications to suppress or stimulate hormone production
• Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, stress management)
• Surgery to remove tumors or dysfunctional glands

Early diagnosis and proper management of endocrine disorders are crucial for maintaining overall health and preventing complications.

The Endocrine System and Aging

As we age, the endocrine system undergoes various changes that can impact overall health and well-being. Understanding these age-related changes is essential for maintaining hormonal balance and addressing potential health concerns.

Age-Related Hormonal Changes

Several hormonal changes occur as part of the natural aging process:

• Decreased growth hormone production
• Reduced testosterone levels in men (andropause)
• Declining estrogen and progesterone in women (menopause)
• Altered thyroid function
• Changes in insulin sensitivity

How do these hormonal changes affect the body? They can lead to various symptoms and health concerns, including:

• Changes in body composition (increased fat mass, decreased muscle mass)
• Reduced bone density
• Altered metabolism and energy levels
• Changes in sexual function and libido
• Increased risk of certain health conditions (e.g., osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease)

Managing Endocrine Health with Age

While some age-related hormonal changes are inevitable, there are steps individuals can take to support endocrine health and mitigate the impact of these changes:

• Regular exercise, including both aerobic and strength training activities
• Maintaining a balanced, nutrient-rich diet
• Getting adequate sleep and managing stress
• Regular health check-ups and hormone level monitoring
• Discussing hormone replacement therapy options with healthcare providers when appropriate

By adopting a proactive approach to endocrine health, individuals can better navigate the hormonal changes associated with aging and maintain optimal well-being.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to evolve, new research and treatment approaches are emerging. These advancements hold promise for improved management of endocrine disorders and overall hormonal health.

Emerging Research Areas

Several exciting areas of endocrine research are currently underway:

• Gene therapy for endocrine disorders
• Artificial intelligence in hormone level prediction and treatment optimization
• Development of more precise and personalized hormone replacement therapies
• Investigation of environmental endocrine disruptors and their health impacts
• Exploration of the gut-endocrine axis and its role in overall health

Innovative Treatment Approaches

New treatment modalities for endocrine disorders are being developed and refined:

• Bioidentical hormone therapies
• Stem cell treatments for regenerating endocrine tissues
• Targeted drug delivery systems for hormone therapies
• Immunotherapies for autoimmune endocrine disorders
• Advanced monitoring technologies for real-time hormone level tracking

These innovations have the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis, treatment, and management of endocrine disorders, offering hope for improved outcomes and quality of life for affected individuals.

As research progresses, our understanding of the intricate workings of the endocrine system continues to deepen. This knowledge not only enhances our ability to treat endocrine disorders but also provides valuable insights into the fundamental processes that govern human physiology and health. By staying informed about these advancements, individuals can take a more active role in their endocrine health and work collaboratively with healthcare providers to achieve optimal hormonal balance throughout their lives.

The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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General symptoms arising from diseases of the thyroid gland.

Clinic of the Thyroid Gland of Dr. A. V. Ushakov – official site.

Clinic of the Thyroid

General overview

Symptoms help to pay attention to the disease. Therefore, it is true that almost every patient, having suspected something was wrong, tries to understand whether there are signs of changes in his thyroid gland.

Most people are not familiar with the symptoms of thyroid disease. Some guess what kind of manifestations are associated with thyroid hormone metabolism. Others think they know everything about thyroid symptoms, but don’t even realize how few symptoms come from the thyroid gland itself. It really is. One of these actual thyroid symptoms is an enlargement of the gland and its protrusion (goiter).

Masking or general symptoms

There is a group of symptoms that can occur with different diseases. Even those that have nothing to do with the thyroid gland. They are as common in women as they are in men. These signs of the disease do not depend on age. Can be observed in children, in adulthood and in the elderly.

These are general symptoms. Doctors call them nonspecific. Such symptoms can accompany various diseases of different organs and systems of the body.

For example, at an appointment in our Clinic one often hears such complaints-symptoms: they can’t do anything else”…

– “it’s hard to wake up”, “drowsiness almost never goes away during the day”, “nothing in the morning and only by noon I work out, but by the evening I have no strength again and I want to sleep”, “I need to drink 2 -3 cups of coffee and take a cold shower, otherwise I can’t work, because. I want to sleep “…

– “no vitality”, “almost no strength”, “lethargy”…

– “difficult to think”, “began to forget (where I put something, what I wanted to buy, names of actors…)”, “it is difficult to systematize ”, “I can’t remember what I just wanted to do”, “I can’t switch from one topic to another as I used to”…

― “became excessively irritable”, “everything irritates me”, “I understand, but nothing I can’t help my reaction – it’s worth hurting me and . .. ”,“ I restrain myself not to answer ”…

Add to these symptoms habitual headaches, coughing, occasional discharge of mucus from the nose or throat, slight changes in body temperature, desire to take a full breath, etc. Not even every doctor can associate all these signs of the disease with the thyroid gland. What to say about the patient?

Indeed, do we not have periods of weakness or drowsiness? Headache is unpleasant, but is it a thyroid symptom? Memory impairment can be “attributed” to age, and with such a complaint, a neurologist will “find” his neurological disease and prescribe medications to improve metabolic processes in the brain. Almost every person has met all of the listed symptoms with colds, flu, bronchitis, pneumonia and other pathological processes.

These symptoms do not always hide a lack of thyroid hormones. But with a deficiency of thyroid hormones (T3f. and T4f.), Which is simultaneously accompanied by an increase in TSH, all of the listed signs of the disease are also possible.

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Thyroid skin symptoms

The skin, like other organs, also needs thyroid hormones. Therefore, with their deficiency, changes may appear on the surface of the body.

Patients of our Clinic, when asked about the manifestations of the disease, often report dry skin. This is most pronounced on the outer side of the folds of the limbs (elbows and knees). There, the skin becomes rougher, which not only draws attention, but also forces one to take ineffective measures.

Red spots may appear in the neck area (front) during emotional stress. They pass as soon as the patient calms down and turns his attention to less disturbing circumstances.

Sometimes (rarely) white spots may appear in the projection of the supraclavicular and subclavian fossae. This phenomenon is called vitiligo. In some cases, such a symptom may decrease and even disappear. But usually it is stable. If in the case of red spots a direct relationship with the excitation of peripheral nerve centers is usually determined, then with white spots the role of the nervous system is supplemented by other individual circumstances of the disease process.

Since hair is an appendage of the skin, it also reacts sensitively to the amount of thyroid hormones in the blood (do not confuse thyroid hormones T3 and T4 with the pituitary hormone TSH, which does not affect the skin in any way).

Head hair loss can occur in both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Even with euthyroidism, this symptom occurs. It is based not only on the direct effect of thyroid hormones on the roots (follicles) of the hair, but also on the indirect effect on the nerve cells that regulate the nutrition of each hair. The condition of the hair itself also depends on these conditions.

There may be hair loss on the limbs and trunk. With proper treatment, the volume of the hairline is usually restored. Skin symptoms include changes in sweating. Both excessive sweating and dryness can be observed.

Restlessness in the neck

Almost 25-30% of our patients complain of typical sensations in the front of the neck. This is a relatively common symptom in diseases of the thyroid gland. It is more common in women and less common in men.

In such cases, one can hear such words: “I feel a lump in my throat”, “I am choking”, “periodically squeezing”. Some patients report: “I can’t wear clothes with a collar and high collars. I want to free my neck.

There is a variety of “cervical” symptoms. Sometimes there is a periodic causeless itching of the skin of the neck. Someone feels an accumulation of mucus in the throat and cannot cough it up. At the same time, an examination by an ENT doctor does not reveal any mucus. There are varying degrees of voice impairment. Someone points out that there were unmotivated desires to cough, “soreness” and “soreness” in the throat (without any cold), they report that they have to “cough”.

All these “cervical” symptoms in diseases of the thyroid gland clearly point to an important part in the basis of the disease. Unfortunately, our colleagues do not know about it. In the Clinic of Dr. A.V. Ushakov specialists carefully study such symptoms. They help to choose individual treatment. Therefore, try to tell our doctors about your feelings and answer clarifying questions.

In Dr. A. V. Ushakov’s monograph “Benign Thyroid Diseases” (2013), we shared with colleagues our knowledge of the clinical significance of this group of symptoms that are often found in thyroid diseases. They are based on a significant activation of certain nerve centers that regulate the corresponding structures of the neck, including the skin, muscles, neck ligaments and the thyroid gland itself. In our Clinic, the state of these nerve centers is diagnosed, individual treatment is prescribed and carried out.

Weight (weight) of the body in diseases of the thyroid gland

Almost every third of our patients pays attention to changes in their weight. Usually this is an increase in weight, and much less often a decrease.

Among the symptoms of the thyroid gland, a change in body weight is perceived as the most characteristic sign of thyroid pathology. But it is not so. In each case, you need to carefully find out the mechanism of the development of the disease, its individual characteristics and connection with the state of the thyroid gland and its hormonal metabolism.

The diagnosis should not be simply determined by changes in body weight. It is not uncommon to read in other publications that with hypothyroidism, body weight increases, and with hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis), body weight decreases. In reality, such an attitude is not common, and it is not rare that it is even the other way around. Why is that?

In this case, the “weight” symptom is influenced by two circumstances. First, in most patients, the manifestation of thyroid disease is mild or moderate. Nowadays, we are all more attentive to our health, and living conditions and awareness of diseases have improved significantly compared to those years (the first half of the 20th century), when body weight changed in contrast and articles and books were written, from which standard lists are still being rewritten. symptoms. In such cases, body weight does not have time to “respond”. Sometimes patients end up in better conditions. At the same time, thyroid hormone metabolism improves, which also affects weight. He oscillates in both directions.

Secondly, the activity of the sympathetic or parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system may predominate in a person. Therefore, regardless of the name of the hormonal state (euthyroidism, hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism), different changes in body weight can be observed. That is why with hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) weight may not change or even increase, and with hypothyroidism it may decrease.

Cardiac and vascular symptoms

Experienced patients are aware of tachycardia (increased heart rate), bradycardia (decrease in heart rate) and palpitations – a symptom when a person himself feels how the heart contracts. Try not to confuse tachycardia with palpitations.

Tachycardia (determined by rapid pulse) is almost always observed in thyrotoxicosis. But this is not a mandatory sign of thyrotoxicosis. A rapid heart rate can occur with euthyroidism and even hypothyroidism. Therefore, it is wrong to diagnose only by the pulse, not paying attention to the hormonal blood test.

Sleep disorders in thyroid diseases

Almost every 2nd and necessarily 3rd patient with thyroid disease during a diagnostic questioning reports a change in his sleep. The symptoms of “sleep disturbance” here are the same as in other diseases. They are not specific to thyroid diseases, but they help to navigate the overall development of the disease and choose the appropriate full-fledged treatment.

Some patients report that if they are very sleepy at 21.00 or 22.00, it is very difficult to fall asleep later. It turns out only at 1.00-2.00 at night. Others say that they wake up at night (at 2.00, 3.00 or 4.00) and cannot fall asleep. At the same time, thoughts of various worries may arise that are difficult to overcome. Still others indicate an early awakening. Fourth, on the contrary, regardless of the fact that they sleep all night, in the morning they feel not rested without sleep.

Almost all such symptoms of sleep disturbance clearly orientate in the excitation of specific nerve centers, which also have an overstraining effect on the thyroid gland.

Thyroid eye symptoms

With thyrotoxicosis (hyperthyroidism), various eye disorders can sometimes occur. The most common protrusion of the eyeballs from the orbits (exophthalmos). This symptom of thyrotoxicosis can be unilateral, occur on both sides and be expressed in different ways (i.e., the eyeballs can protrude to varying degrees).

Exophthalmos in diseases of the thyroid gland does not depend on the amount of hormones and antibodies. Its connection absolutely depends on the degree of excitation of the nerve cells that control the state of the extraorbital tissue and the eyes themselves. As the condition of these nerve cells improves, the eye signs of the disease decrease and disappear.

More about this symptom is described in the book of Dr. A. V. Ushakov “Restoration of the thyroid gland”.

Along with protrusion of the eyes, other signs associated with it appear (expansion of the palpebral fissure, rare blinking, dryness of the sclera of the eye, etc.).

This introductory article provides only partial guidance in an important area of ​​thyroid disease diagnosis, the signs. The science of symptoms in endocrinology in reality has a greater variety and volume of information about the mechanisms of development of manifestations of diseases. It is important for the patient not to overload himself with significant attention to the symptoms in order to exclude unnecessary emotional experiences. But, on the other hand, you should remember and write down the manifestations of the disease in order to convey this information to an experienced and knowledgeable doctor who can really help you.

In the Clinic of the Thyroid Gland of Dr. A. V. Ushakov, the study of symptoms and the history of the development of the disease in each patient is of great importance. Up to 30 minutes of the 2.5 hour “Diagnostics and Consultation” are allocated for this during the first appointment of the patient. For a full-fledged examination, it will be useful if the patient prepares in advance by writing a memo to himself with his symptoms and dates of events associated with the disease (when and what was detected, periods and doses of medication).

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Thyroid gland – what is it, where is it located, disease

Thyroid: general information

The thyroid gland (popularly “thyroid gland”) is a small organ located at the base of the neck. The thyroid gland is often compared to a butterfly because it also has “wings” (two lobes) and a “body” (an isthmus between the lobes). Each lobe is filled with follicles, special structures containing thyroid hormones.

The shape of the thyroid gland is an individual feature: sometimes one “wing” is larger than the other, and the “calf” may not be visible at all

Outside, the thyroid gland is covered with two layers: the first (outer) is in direct contact with the muscles of the larynx and the surrounding nerves, and the second creates a layer between the outer layer and the gland itself and allows it to move when a person swallows or talks.

The thyroid gland, along with the adrenal glands, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries and testicles, is part of the endocrine system. This system regulates the work of the body with the help of hormones.

The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormones into the blood – T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine). They affect the metabolic rate, heart rate, digestive system, vitamin synthesis and even mood, as well as regulate body temperature and the menstrual cycle.

Iodine is needed for the synthesis of T3 and T4. This element is not produced in the body – it can be obtained from food or medicines. Most of all iodine is found in seaweed, seafood, fish, dairy products, egg yolks.

In addition to T3 and T4, thyroid cells produce another hormone – calcitonin. It regulates the exchange of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

The thyroid gland is controlled by the pituitary gland, a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain that synthesizes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The interaction of the pituitary gland and the thyroid gland is arranged according to the principle of feedback. So, when the gland begins to produce less T4 than it needs, the level of TSH in the blood increases, and with an increase in the amount of T4, the level of TSH decreases.

If the work of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland or the thyroid gland itself is disturbed, the metabolism changes and the whole organism suffers.

Diseases of the thyroid gland

Malfunctions of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland or thyroid gland can occur for various reasons: due to certain medications, viral infections, iodine deficiency, chronic stress, autoimmune reactions, pregnancy and childbirth. In this case, both low activity of hormone production and high activity are considered a failure.

Without treatment, thyroid problems will only get worse and can lead to obesity, heart disease, inability to conceive or carry a child, and in some cases, coma.

The most common pathologies of the thyroid gland :

• hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much of the hormones T4 and T3;
• hypothyroidism – a condition in which the function of the thyroid gland is reduced, not enough hormones T4 and T3 are produced;
• thyroiditis – inflammation of the thyroid gland;
• Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disease that develops against the background of hyperproduction of the hormones T4 and T3;
• goiter – enlargement of the thyroid gland, often accompanied by hyperproduction of its hormones, which looks like a swelling on the neck;
• thyroid nodules – volumetric formations that can be both benign and malignant;
• Thyroid cancer is a malignant tumor formed from the cells of the gland.

Thyroid symptoms

Symptoms of thyroid pathologies vary. However, there is something in common: they increase gradually, so people may not notice for a long time that something has gone wrong.

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)

Due to the overactive thyroid gland, the body literally goes crazy: metabolic processes are accelerated, systems begin to work intermittently.

Common symptoms of hyperthyroidism :

• causeless weight loss against the background of a constant feeling of hunger;
• palpitations – the pulse can be over 100 beats per minute at rest;
• cardiac arrhythmia;
• bloating, flatulence, diarrhea;
• fatigue;
• heat intolerance, feeling hot for no reason;
• increased sweating;
• irritability;
• insomnia;
• hand trembling;
• menstrual disorders in women;
• dry skin;
• hair loss or brittleness.

Women are 10 times more likely to be diagnosed with hyperthyroidism than men. Usually pathology starts at 20–40 years old

Due to hyperthyroidism, bones can become brittle, vision is reduced, cardiovascular disorders can join, up to heart failure and heart attack.

Symptoms of hypothyroidism

Deficiency of thyroid hormones initially presents with mild weakness and weight gain. Over time, more noticeable symptoms occur.

Common symptoms of hypothyroidism :

• unexplained weight gain;
• slow heart rate;
• lethargy, drowsiness;
• decrease in body temperature;
• hypersensitivity to cold;
• regular constipation;
• fatigue;
• swelling of the face, legs and arms;
• slow heartbeat;
• dry skin;
• brittle nails and hair;
• irregular menses;
• difficulty concentrating;
• depressed mood up to depression.

Most often, hypothyroidism is diagnosed in women over 40 years of age

Symptoms of thyroiditis

There are several types of thyroiditis – acute, subacute and chronic.

Acute and subacute thyroiditis are relatively rare. They occur due to a bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection and are usually severe. A person’s temperature rises (up to 39-40 °C), he cannot turn his head, there is severe pain in the neck, which radiates to the ear or shoulder.

Chronic thyroiditis is much more common. It develops due to a malfunction in the immune system, as a result of which the body takes thyroid cells for pathogens and attacks them. Also, chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland can occur when taking certain medications, such as drugs for the treatment of arrhythmia and cancer, iodine-containing drugs, drugs with lithium.

People with chronic thyroiditis become depleted of thyroid hormones over time, symptoms of hypothyroidism develop: skin and hair become dry, and nails become brittle, hair begins to fall out, sensitivity to cold appears, general and muscle weakness, drowsiness, decreased concentration and deterioration memory, swelling, constipation, overweight, joint pain.

In addition, the thyroid gland gradually increases and over time begins to compress the surrounding organs and tissues and “solder” to them. Therefore, such thyroiditis causes symptoms from neighboring organs: shortness of breath, difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, wheezing.

The risk of developing autoimmune thyroiditis increases with age

Symptoms of Graves’ disease

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disease that leads to an overactive thyroid gland and excessive production of hormones. As a result, the classic symptoms of hyperthyroidism occur: unreasonable weight loss, constant feeling of hunger, heart palpitations, flatulence and diarrhea, heat intolerance, excessive sweating, irritability.

A characteristic symptom of Graves’ disease is secondary exophthalmos, protrusion of the eyeball (bulging eyes)

In addition, in people with Graves’ disease, the skin condition changes, it becomes thickened, the microrelief is smoothed out, severe itching appears.

Symptoms of goiter

Goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, a symptom of a number of diseases, and not an independent pathology. It can occur if the thyroid gland cannot cope with the production of hormones. In order to somehow compensate for their deficiency or excess, it begins to increase in volume.

Goiter looks like a round bump or swelling at the base of the neck

Signs of goiter :

• feeling of fullness in the neck,
• lump in throat,
• difficulty swallowing,
• cough,
• hoarseness.

Symptoms of thyroid nodules

Thyroid nodules look like lumps, consisting of clusters of thyroid cells. They can be solid or filled with liquid. Usually these are benign formations, they are detected in most adults. In rare cases, such a node can be a malignant tumor.

Most people are unaware that they have thyroid nodules because the condition does not cause symptoms. You can notice them when they grow and begin to squeeze neighboring tissues, the trachea and nerve endings.

The appearance of thyroid nodules may be accompanied by the following symptoms :

• swallowing disorder,
• neck pain,
• shortness of breath,
• hoarseness.

Symptoms of thyroid cancer

Thyroid cancer is a malignant tumor. Scientists still do not know exactly why it occurs. It is believed that genetic disorders are to blame.

Usually such tumors do not manifest themselves for a long time. Symptoms become noticeable as the tumor grows and include: swelling in the neck, difficulty swallowing, coughing, hoarseness.

In rare cases, thyroid cancer can affect hormone production and cause symptoms of hyper- or hypothyroidism.

Diagnosis of thyroid disorders

As a rule, thyroid diseases develop asymptomatically for a long time, so people do not go to the doctor in the early stages of pathologies. To understand that something is wrong with the organ, you will need to consult a specialist, as well as laboratory and instrumental examinations. In some cases, thyroid tissue is examined, for this a fine-needle biopsy is performed.

An endocrinologist deals with the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid diseases.

When to check the thyroid gland

Regular screening examinations help prevent severe pathologies. In addition, you should pay attention to your well-being. Sometimes even mild symptoms can signal a serious malfunction in the thyroid gland.

Early signs of thyroid dysfunction :

• sudden change in weight;
• swelling of the face;
• causeless irritability, tearfulness;
• neck discomfort;
• menstrual disorders;
• brittle nails and hair;
• stool problems;
• rapid or slow heartbeat.

To check how the thyroid gland works, blood tests for hormones T4, T3, and TSH help.

Assessment of thyroid function

Code 28.338.

Comprehensive study that helps diagnose thyroid diseases and monitor their treatment. It is recommended for people at risk for thyroid diseases, including residents of regions with a low natural iodine content in drinking water, and patients with a history of thyroid diseases.

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If their blood level is elevated, the doctor diagnoses hyperthyroidism. And if lowered – hypothyroidism.

These tests can detect problems in the thyroid gland, but cannot determine their cause. This will require additional research.

For example, to detect autoimmune damage to the thyroid gland, a doctor prescribes blood tests for antibodies to thyroglobulin (AT-TG) and thyroid peroxidase (AT-TPO) – proteins that are found exclusively in the cells of the thyroid gland and are released when it is destroyed.

Cause of thyroid disease

Code 28.365.

Comprehensive study determines the content in the blood of antibodies to thyroglobulin (AT-TG) and thyroid peroxidase (AT-TPO) – proteins that are found exclusively in the cells of the thyroid gland. The analysis allows to identify autoimmune lesions of the thyroid gland. May be used as an adjunct to screening thyroid function assessment.

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If a neoplasm in the thyroid gland is suspected, the doctor prescribes an ultrasound examination (ultrasound) to assess the structure of the organ itself and the pathological element.

In addition, scintigraphy may be performed. This research method allows you to get an image of the organ, which shows changes in the tissue. To do this, a radioactive drug is injected into a vein, which enters the thyroid gland with the blood flow. A special device captures the radiation and converts it into a computer image.

At the same time, “hot” nodes may appear on the monitor – zones of more active accumulation of the radiopharmaceutical, and “cold” ones – not accumulating the radiopharmaceutical. “Hot” nodes most often correspond to areas with active synthesis of thyroid hormones, for example, with nodular thyrotoxic goiter. “Cold” zones of reduced activity usually correspond to cysts, fibrosis, thyroiditis, malignant neoplasms of the thyroid gland.

Thyroid scintigraphy shows inflammatory lesions that stain blue

Treatment of thyroid disorders

Treatment will differ depending on the cause of the disease. So, some pathologies require surgical intervention, others are treated with the help of medications. In some cases, no therapy is used at all, but it is important for the patient to be under medical supervision.

Persistent hypo- or hyperthyroidism is treated with thyroid hormone preparations. As a rule, they need to be taken for a long time. They correct the work of the organ and usually quickly alleviate the condition of a person.

Prevention of thyroid disease

No specific prevention of thyroid disease has been developed. However, the health of an organ largely depends on the supply of iodine to the body, so doctors recommend paying attention to the prevention of its deficiency. Especially often, pregnant and lactating women, newborns, as well as residents of regions remote from the sea face iodine deficiency.

It is usually sufficient for adults to receive 150 micrograms of iodine per day, for pregnant and lactating women – at least 250. For children, other norms are established: children under one year old need to receive at least 50 micrograms, from 1 year to 7 years – 90, from 7 to 12 years old – 120.

According to the WHO, more than 2 billion people live with iodine deficiency. There are no territories in Russia where its deficiency has not been registered.

The human body does not produce iodine on its own, but receives it only from food. There is a lot of this mineral in sea water, so seaweed, fish and seafood are especially rich in iodine. It is found in smaller quantities in dairy products and eggs.

Foods rich in iodine :

• seaweed,
• cod,
• cranberry,
• squid,
• milk,
• eggs.

Not everyone needs to take supplements or multivitamins with iodine, but only those who have been prescribed them by a doctor based on the results of blood tests.

Abuse of iodine is not worth it – an excess, like a deficiency, is dangerous to health

Due to the fact that it is not always possible to get enough iodine from food, salt, bread and other products have been iodized in Russia. Thanks to this, there are fewer people with iodine deficiency.