How does the endocrine system regulate bodily functions. What are the main glands in the human body and their roles. Which common disorders affect the endocrine system. How do hormones impact health and development throughout life.

The Endocrine System: An Overview of Hormonal Regulation

The endocrine system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s homeostasis and orchestrating various physiological processes. It consists of a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, affecting nearly every cell, organ, and function in the human body.

Hormones act as chemical messengers, traveling through the blood to target specific cells or organs. They regulate numerous bodily functions, including:

• Metabolism
• Growth and development
• Reproduction
• Mood and emotional responses
• Energy levels
• Stress response

Understanding the intricate workings of the endocrine system is essential for comprehending how the body maintains balance and responds to various internal and external stimuli.

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

The endocrine system comprises several glands, each with specific roles in hormone production and regulation. Here’s an overview of the major endocrine glands and their primary functions:

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus serves as a crucial link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It produces hormones that control the pituitary gland, effectively regulating various bodily processes. How does the hypothalamus communicate with other glands? It releases hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the production of other hormones in the body.

Pituitary Gland

Often referred to as the “master gland,” the pituitary gland produces a wide array of hormones that influence other endocrine glands and bodily functions. These include:

• Growth hormone (GH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Prolactin
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin

Each of these hormones plays a specific role in regulating various bodily functions, from growth and metabolism to reproduction and stress response.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. The two main thyroid hormones are:

1. Thyroxine (T4)
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)

These hormones influence nearly every cell in the body, controlling how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins, and regulates body temperature. The thyroid gland also produces calcitonin, which helps regulate calcium levels in the blood and bones.

Parathyroid Glands

Located behind the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. This hormone is crucial for maintaining bone health and proper functioning of the nervous and muscular systems.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands, situated atop the kidneys, produce several important hormones:

• Cortisol: Regulates metabolism and helps the body respond to stress
• Aldosterone: Controls blood pressure and electrolyte balance
• Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine): Trigger the “fight or flight” response
• Small amounts of sex hormones

These hormones play vital roles in stress response, metabolism, and maintaining electrolyte balance.

Pancreas

The pancreas serves both endocrine and exocrine functions. As an endocrine gland, it produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels. How do these hormones work together? Insulin lowers blood sugar by promoting glucose uptake by cells, while glucagon raises blood sugar by stimulating the release of glucose from the liver.

Reproductive Glands

The ovaries in females and testes in males are responsible for producing sex hormones:

• Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone
• Testes: Produce testosterone

These hormones are essential for sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining secondary sexual characteristics.

Hormone Production and Regulation: A Delicate Balance

The production and release of hormones are tightly regulated through feedback mechanisms. This ensures that hormone levels remain within appropriate ranges for optimal bodily function. There are two main types of feedback loops:

1. Negative feedback: The most common type, where an increase in hormone levels signals the gland to reduce production
2. Positive feedback: Less common, where an increase in hormone levels stimulates further production

These feedback mechanisms help maintain homeostasis and prevent hormonal imbalances that could lead to various health issues.

Common Endocrine Disorders and Their Impact on Health

Endocrine disorders can occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, or when the body doesn’t respond properly to hormones. Some common endocrine disorders include:

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels. There are two main types:

• Type 1 Diabetes: The body doesn’t produce insulin
• Type 2 Diabetes: The body doesn’t produce enough insulin or becomes resistant to its effects

Both types can lead to serious complications if left unmanaged, including cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and nerve damage.

Thyroid Disorders

Thyroid disorders can result in either overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism) of thyroid hormones. What are the symptoms of thyroid disorders? Hyperthyroidism may cause weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety, while hypothyroidism can lead to weight gain, fatigue, and depression.

Adrenal Insufficiency

This condition occurs when the adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol or aldosterone. It can result in fatigue, weakness, and low blood pressure.

Growth Hormone Deficiency

A lack of growth hormone can affect physical development in children and impact metabolism and body composition in adults.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

PCOS is a common endocrine disorder in women, characterized by hormonal imbalances that can lead to irregular menstrual cycles, fertility issues, and metabolic problems.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders

Diagnosing endocrine disorders often involves a combination of physical examinations, medical history reviews, and laboratory tests. Common diagnostic tools include:

• Blood tests to measure hormone levels
• Imaging studies (e.g., ultrasound, CT scans, MRI)
• Genetic testing for hereditary endocrine conditions

Treatment approaches vary depending on the specific disorder and may include:

1. Hormone replacement therapy
2. Medications to regulate hormone production or action
3. Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, stress management)
4. Surgery in some cases (e.g., to remove tumors)

Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial for managing endocrine disorders and preventing complications.

The Endocrine System and Aging: Changes and Challenges

As we age, the endocrine system undergoes various changes that can affect overall health and well-being. Some age-related endocrine changes include:

• Decreased production of growth hormone and sex hormones
• Reduced insulin sensitivity
• Changes in thyroid function
• Alterations in calcium metabolism and bone density

These changes can contribute to age-related health issues such as osteoporosis, metabolic syndrome, and sexual dysfunction. How can we support endocrine health as we age? Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and stress management, can help mitigate some age-related endocrine changes.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

Ongoing research in endocrinology continues to uncover new insights into hormone function and regulation. Some promising areas of study include:

• Gene therapy for endocrine disorders
• Development of more targeted and personalized hormone therapies
• Investigation of endocrine disruptors in the environment
• Exploration of the gut-hormone connection
• Advancements in hormone replacement technologies

These research efforts hold the potential to improve diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of endocrine disorders, ultimately enhancing quality of life for individuals affected by hormonal imbalances.

Understanding the complexities of the endocrine system is crucial for maintaining overall health and well-being. By recognizing the signs of hormonal imbalances and seeking appropriate medical care, individuals can take proactive steps to support their endocrine health throughout their lives. As research in this field continues to advance, we can look forward to more effective and personalized approaches to managing endocrine disorders and optimizing hormonal balance.

The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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What is the endocrine system – an explanation of glands and hormones

The endocrine system is a system of glands that produce and release hormones into the blood. These hormones control many of the body’s vital functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is very complex and scientists are still learning a lot about how it works. But we do know that the circulatory system plays an important role in delivering hormones to target tissues.

The endocrine system includes many different glands. These include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and pancreas. Each gland produces specific hormones that help regulate various bodily functions. For example, the pituitary gland produces growth hormone, which allows the body to grow and develop. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine, which helps regulate metabolism. The adrenal glands produce adrenaline, which helps mobilize the body’s resources during times of stress.

Body glands

There are many different glands in the body, each with a specific function. Endocrine glands produce hormones – chemicals that regulate the growth, metabolism and reproduction of the body.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain; this gland produces growth hormone, which regulates the growth of the body. The pituitary gland is also responsible for the production of other hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which controls the production of stress hormones in the adrenal glands. Fight or flight, the system that can make us feel stressed or anxious, is controlled by the pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus, in the center of the brain. It produces many hormones, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which regulates the production of stress hormones in the adrenal glands. The hypothalamus also regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and fatigue.

Thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck, just below the vocal apparatus (larynx). It produces thyroid-stimulating hormone, which regulates the body’s metabolism. Thyroid hormone helps the body convert food into energy and plays a role in growth and development.

Parathyroid gland

The parathyroid gland is located in the neck, behind the thyroid gland. It produces parathyroid hormone, which helps regulate calcium levels in the body. Calcium is essential for many functions, including muscle contraction, nerve function, and blood clotting.

Adrenal glands

The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and produce stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones help the body respond to stressful situations.

Pancreas

The pancreas is located in the abdomen, behind the stomach. It produces insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels. The pancreas also produces other hormones, such as glucagon, which help regulate metabolism.

Pineal gland

The pineal gland is located in the brain, in the center of the head. It produces melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep. The pineal gland also helps regulate the circadian rhythm, or the body’s internal clock.

Reproductive glands (ovaries and testes)

Ovaries and testicles are the main reproductive glands. The ovaries produce eggs that are necessary for fertilization. They also produce hormones such as estrogen and progesterone that play a role in reproduction.

The testicles produce sperm, which is necessary for fertilization. They also produce testosterone, a hormone that helps regulate male characteristics such as muscle mass and hair growth.

Hormones

Now that we have discussed the glands of the body, let’s talk about hormones. As we have already said, hormones are chemicals that regulate the growth, metabolism and reproduction of the body. They are produced by the endocrine glands and enter the bloodstream. Through the blood, hormones enter target tissues, where they bind to specific receptors. Binding of hormones to receptors causes a response in target tissues.

There are many different hormones in the body, each with a specific function. Some of the most important hormones include:

Adrenaline (stress hormone)

Adrenaline increases heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar, which gives the body extra energy to cope with a stressful situation

Cortisol (stress hormone)

Cortisol helps the body respond to stress by regulating metabolism substances, blood sugar levels and immune function.

Estrogen

Estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and promotes the development of feminine features such as breasts and hips. Estrogen also protects bone health.

Progesterone

Progesterone prepares the body for pregnancy by thickening the lining of the uterus and also plays a role in the production of breast milk.

Testosterone

Testosterone promotes the development of male qualities such as muscle mass and hair growth; it also regulates sex drive.

Thyroid hormone

Thyroid hormone regulates the body’s metabolism, which is the process of converting food into energy. It also controls the activity of the nervous system.

Insulin

Insulin regulates blood sugar by helping the body store and use glucose (sugar). Many other hormones in the body play an important role in regulating growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Hormone imbalance

Hormonal imbalance occurs when there is too much or too little of a hormone in the body. Hormone imbalances can lead to various health problems, including infertility, obesity, and diabetes.

There are several ways to correct hormonal imbalances. One of them is hormone replacement therapy, which involves taking hormones in pill form. Another way is surgery to remove a gland that is not functioning properly. Finally, some hormonal imbalances can be treated with lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise.

Circulatory system

The circulatory system is essential for the proper functioning of the endocrine system and is responsible for transporting hormones throughout the body. Circulating blood delivers hormones to target tissues by binding to specific receptors. Binding of hormones to receptors causes a response in target tissues. Without the circulatory system, hormones would not be able to reach their target tissues and perform their functions.

There are two main types of circulation in the body: The first is systemic circulation: it carries oxygen-rich blood to the tissues of the body. Pulmonary circulation: Carries carbon dioxide-rich blood from body tissues to the lungs.

People also ask about the endocrine system

What are hormones?

Hormones are chemical molecules produced by the endocrine glands. These hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to specific receptors on target cells. This binding elicits a response in target cells that can be anything from stimulating cell growth to regulating metabolism.

Hormones are important for many vital bodily functions, including growth, metabolism and reproduction. Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to various health problems.

What are endocrine diseases?

Endocrine disorders occur when there is an imbalance of hormones in the body. This may be due to dysfunction of one or more endocrine glands, or to problems with the hormones themselves. Common endocrine diseases include diabetes, hypothyroidism, and adrenal insufficiency. Treatment for endocrine disorders often includes medication, lifestyle changes, or surgery.

How can I help regulate my hormones?

There are some simple strategies to help you regulate your hormone levels, including being physically active, maintaining a healthy weight, eating a balanced protein diet, reducing stress through activities such as meditation or yoga, and getting enough sleep.

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ReSources

Anatomy of the endocrine system | Johns Hopkins Medicine

Endocrine system: What it is, functions and organs

Hormones and the endocrine system | Johns Hopkins Medicine

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Reproductive Glands – Encyclopedia of Health – University of Rochester Medical Center

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Functions of the endocrine glands in the human body.

Tests for hormones and their interpretation.

The human endocrine system consists of organs called endocrine glands, which regulate the work of the whole organism by releasing biologically active substances – hormones – into the circulatory system. These substances perform paramount functions in the body: they help maintain homeostasis, control growth and development, participate in metabolic processes, are responsible for responding to changes in environmental conditions, and regulate the reproductive system.

Endocrine glands include:

Thyroid. Produces hormones – thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin. These hormones are involved in metabolism, increasing its intensity, regulate growth processes in the body, increase the level of consumption of vital oxygen by organs and tissues.

Parathyroid glands. They produce parathyroid hormone that regulates the level of calcium in the body, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the motor apparatus and nervous system.

Thymus (thymus). This organ occupies a central place in the human immune system, not without reason the word “thymus” is translated from ancient Greek as “life force”. The thymus produces T-lymphocytes – immune cells that provide antiviral and antitumor protection of the body. It secretes a number of hormones into the blood: thymalin, thymosin, IGF-1, thymopoietin, which are responsible for the functional activity of the immune system.

Adrenals. They produce the so-called stress hormone – adrenaline, which is involved in the body’s response to external stressful situations. When a large amount of adrenaline is released into the blood, breathing quickens, the heart rate increases, blood vessels constrict, and the pupils dilate.

Pancreas. Is the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It produces the hormones insulin, which lowers the level of glucose in the blood, and glucagon, on the contrary, increases it.

Gonads. In women, the ovaries; in men, the testes. The hormones produced by these glands are responsible for reproductive function.

Pituitary and hypothalamus. Form the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The pituitary gland produces hormones that control almost the entire endocrine system. Among them, the most important is the growth hormone – somatotropin, which affects the growth of bones, cartilage and muscles.

Epiphysis (pineal body, or pineal gland). The organ performs important functions: it slows down growth hormones, inhibits the development of tumors, and affects sexual development. It produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which controls the water balance of the body, oxytocin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, and melatonin, a hormone that controls the sequence of sleep phases.

Based on the foregoing, we can follow the conclusion that the importance of the endocrine system cannot be overestimated – its activity extends to all organs of the body and all processes occurring in it. Therefore, all deviations from the norm in the operation of this system require immediate medical intervention.

Symptoms of hormonal imbalance

There are a lot of symptoms of malfunctioning of the endocrine glands, among them are:

• Irregular or absent menstruation in women;
• Miscarriage or infertility;
• Loss of sexual desire;
• Weight gain;
• Eruptions on the body, acne;
• Deterioration of hair and nails;
• Sleep disturbances, lethargy, increased fatigue;
• Emotional instability: tearfulness, irascibility, nervousness;
• The development of osteoporosis is a disease that leads to brittle bones.

It is worth noting that none of the above symptoms is a direct confirmation of the presence of a hormonal imbalance, but only a possible consequence. To make an accurate diagnosis, it is necessary to undergo a complete examination by an endocrinologist, which includes the method of functional diagnostics (ultrasound, MRI), as well as laboratory blood tests, which will be discussed below.

How is blood tested for hormones?

A blood test for hormones is the most indicative and informative method for detecting any pathologies in the work of the endocrine glands. However, it is important to consider that many factors influence the hormonal background: the time of day, the menstrual cycle in women, and medication. For this reason, the preparation for taking tests for a hormonal study must be taken with all seriousness. If this is neglected, then the result of the analysis may be incorrect and, at best, it will have to be retaken, and at worst, an incorrect diagnosis may be made on its basis and the wrong treatment may be prescribed, which can lead to irreparable consequences.

To prepare for donating blood for hormones, the following general rules must be observed:

• On the eve of the test, you should give up physical activity, try to avoid stressful situations, stop any physiotherapy procedures, exclude oral contraceptives, alcohol, fatty foods and products containing iodine. It is also recommended to postpone the ECG, ultrasound, x-ray examination for a while after the test.
• An important point is taking medications – it is necessary to notify the doctor who ordered the hormonal blood test about the fact of taking medications. He will decide whether to cancel or continue taking medications at the time of the test.
• An analysis for a hormonal study is taken strictly on an empty stomach. Therefore, it is recommended to stop eating 12 hours before blood sampling.
• In the morning, before the test, it is forbidden to chew gum, drink tea and smoke.
• Rest for 15-10 minutes immediately before donating blood.
• Women need to take into account their menstrual cycle, because. it is possible to examine the blood for some hormones only in certain periods of this cycle.
• To track the dynamics of indicators of the level of certain hormones, a second analysis is required. It is rented at approximately the same time as the previous one, in compliance with all of the above rules.

Blood sampling for analysis is carried out in the morning in the morning. The biomaterial is taken from the cubital vein.

Explanation of tests

Thyroid hormones

Triiodothyronine , or T3 – gives a general assessment of the work of the thyroid gland. This hormone is determined both in free form (norm: from 2.6 to 5.7 pmol/l.), And in the serum state, (general form; norm: from 1.3 to 2.7 nmol/l). An increase in the indicator indicates the use of narcotic substances: methadone, heroin, amphetamine, HIV infection, renal failure, hyperthyroidism. The decrease was established with the use of androgens, danazol, dexamethasone, propranolol.

Thyroxine , or T4 – regulates energy metabolism in the body. Norm: 10.8 – 22.0 pmol / l. A low level is observed with hyperthyroidism, hemolysis. Elevated levels – when taking oral contraceptives, methodone, heroin, estrogen.

Thyroglobulin , or Tg – is prescribed for suspected malignant neoplasms. Norm: < 55 ng / ml.

Anti-thyroglobulin – prescribed for suspected autoimmune thyroid disease. Norm: 0 – 18 U / ml.

Microsomal antibodies are the most accurate indicator of the presence of autoimmune diseases. A deviation from the norm < 5.6 U / ml is proof of the aggression of the immune system to its own body.

Thyroxine-binding globulin , or TSH, is responsible for the transport of the hormones T3 and T4. Norm: from 16.8 to 22.5 mcg / ml. An increased indicator may indicate pregnancy, a lower one – with cirrhosis of the liver.

Adrenal hormones

Cortisol – regulates carbohydrate metabolism. Norm: from 230 to 750 nm / l. A low rate may be the result of chronic adrenal insufficiency, and a high one may indicate oncology or adenoma.

Aldosterone – responsible for the water-salt balance. Norms: in a horizontal position 17.6-230.2 pg / ml; in a vertical position 25. 2-392 pg / ml. Elevated levels of the hormone in the blood usually indicate an adrenal tumor.

Norepinephrine and epinephrine – normalize heart rate, blood pressure, form glucose levels. Norms: from 1.92 to 2.46 nm / l for adrenaline, from 0.62 to 3.23 nm / l for norepinephrine. An increase in indicators indicates kidney disease, Itsenko-Cushing’s syndrome, emotional and physical workload of the body, a decrease indicates pathology of the hypothalamus.

Sex hormones

Estradiol – is responsible for the production of germ cells and the proper development of pregnancy. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 200 to 285 pm/l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 440 to 575 pi/l, during menopause from 50 to 133 pm/l. A lower indicator may indicate a tumor in the ovaries, an increased indicator – with their insufficient functioning.

Testosterone is the main male hormone. Responsible for the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, stimulates the growth of muscle mass and bones. Norms: for men – 2 -10 ng / ml, for women – 0.2 – 1 ng / l.

Progesterone – ensures the proper development of the genital organs in women. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 1 to 2.2 nm / l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 23 to 30 nm / l, during menopause from 1 to 1.8 nm / l . An increase in the indicator is observed with tumors of the adrenal cortex, a decrease – with ovarian sclerosis.

Pituitary hormones

Thyroid stimulating hormone , or TSH, stimulates the production of the main thyroid hormones, so deviations from the reference values ​​​​indicate thyroid dysfunction. Norm: 0.4-4.0 honey / l.

Somatotropic hormone , or STH – a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland, is responsible for stimulating the mouth of bones, muscle mass and other organs of the human body. Norm: < 10.0 ng / ml. Exceeding the value of the established norm indicates gigantism, acromegaly.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone , or ACTH – stimulates the synthesis of hormones in the adrenal cortex. Norm: < 46 pg / ml. Deviations from the norm are observed in Itsenko-Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, as well as in other disorders of the adrenal glands.

Prolactin is a hormone responsible for the growth of the mammary glands in women and the functioning of the prostate in men. The norm for the stronger sex is 100 – 265 mcg / l, for the fair sex – from 130 to 540 skg / l during the childbearing period.

Follicle-stimulating hormone , FSH – stimulates the growth of follicles in women, is responsible for the functioning of the seminiferous tubules in men. The norm in women: in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) from 1.37 – 9.90 IU / l, in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) from 1.