How does the endocrine system regulate bodily functions. What are the main glands in the human body and their roles. Why is hormone balance crucial for overall health. Which disorders can affect the endocrine system. How do lifestyle factors impact hormonal health.

The Endocrine System: Your Body’s Chemical Messenger Network

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These chemical messengers play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, from metabolism and growth to reproduction and mood. Understanding the endocrine system is essential for maintaining overall health and well-being.

What are the primary components of the endocrine system?

The endocrine system consists of several glands located throughout the body, including:

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Thymus
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Ovaries (in females)
• Testes (in males)

Each of these glands produces specific hormones that target different organs and tissues, orchestrating a wide range of physiological processes.

The Five Critical Functions of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system performs several vital functions that are essential for maintaining homeostasis and overall health. Let’s explore the five primary functions in detail:

1. Regulation of Growth and Development

One of the most crucial roles of the endocrine system is to regulate growth and development throughout an individual’s lifetime. The pituitary gland, often referred to as the “master gland,” produces growth hormone (GH), which stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other tissues. This hormone is particularly important during childhood and adolescence, but it continues to play a role in adult metabolism and body composition.

The thyroid gland also contributes to growth regulation by producing thyroid hormones, which are essential for normal physical and mental development. These hormones influence the growth of bones, brain development, and the maturation of various organ systems.

2. Control of Metabolism and Energy Balance

The endocrine system plays a pivotal role in regulating metabolism, which encompasses all the chemical processes that occur within the body to maintain life. The thyroid gland is a key player in this function, producing hormones that control the rate at which cells convert nutrients into energy.

How does the thyroid gland influence metabolism? Thyroid hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), affect nearly every cell in the body. They regulate the basal metabolic rate, which determines how quickly the body burns calories. When thyroid hormone levels are balanced, metabolism functions optimally. However, imbalances can lead to conditions such as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), which can significantly impact energy levels, weight, and overall health.

The pancreas is another crucial gland in metabolic regulation. It produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that work in tandem to maintain proper blood sugar levels. Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells, while glucagon promotes the release of stored glucose into the bloodstream when levels are low. This delicate balance is essential for providing cells with the energy they need to function.

3. Maintenance of Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. The endocrine system plays a vital role in this process by constantly monitoring and adjusting various physiological parameters.

For example, the adrenal glands produce hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, which help regulate blood pressure, fluid balance, and the body’s response to stress. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which works in conjunction with calcitonin from the thyroid gland to maintain optimal calcium levels in the blood and bones.

The hypothalamus, located in the brain, acts as a control center for many homeostatic processes. It monitors factors such as body temperature, blood pressure, and fluid balance, and sends signals to other glands to release or inhibit hormone production as needed.

Reproductive Function and Sexual Development

The endocrine system plays a pivotal role in sexual development, reproduction, and fertility. The sex hormones produced by the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males) are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, the regulation of the menstrual cycle in women, and the production of sperm in men.

How do sex hormones influence reproductive function?

In females, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and prepare the body for pregnancy. These hormones also contribute to the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such as breast development and the widening of hips.

In males, the testes produce testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, including deepening of the voice, growth of facial and body hair, and increased muscle mass. Testosterone also plays a crucial role in sperm production and maintaining libido.

The pituitary gland produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which stimulate the production of sex hormones and regulate reproductive processes in both males and females.

Mood Regulation and Emotional Well-being

The endocrine system has a significant impact on mood and emotional well-being. Hormones produced by various glands can influence neurotransmitter activity in the brain, affecting emotions, behavior, and cognitive function.

Which hormones are most influential in mood regulation?

• Cortisol: Produced by the adrenal glands, cortisol is often called the “stress hormone.” While it’s essential for the body’s stress response, chronic elevation of cortisol can lead to anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders.
• Thyroid hormones: Imbalances in thyroid hormone levels can significantly impact mood. Hypothyroidism is often associated with depression, while hyperthyroidism can cause anxiety and irritability.
• Serotonin: Although primarily known as a neurotransmitter, serotonin is also produced in the gut and regulated by the endocrine system. It plays a crucial role in mood regulation and is often targeted by antidepressant medications.
• Melatonin: Produced by the pineal gland, melatonin regulates the sleep-wake cycle. Disruptions in melatonin production can lead to sleep disorders, which can, in turn, affect mood and cognitive function.

Understanding the intricate relationship between hormones and mood can help in developing more effective treatments for mood disorders and improving overall emotional well-being.

Endocrine Disorders: When the System Malfunctions

While the endocrine system is remarkably efficient, various disorders can disrupt its normal functioning. These disorders can result from glands producing too much or too little of a hormone, or from problems with hormone receptors.

What are some common endocrine disorders?

1. Diabetes mellitus: A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels due to problems with insulin production or function.
2. Thyroid disorders: Including hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid).
3. Adrenal insufficiency: A condition in which the adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol and, in some cases, aldosterone.
4. Cushing’s syndrome: Caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol.
5. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal disorder common among women of reproductive age.
6. Growth hormone deficiency: Can lead to short stature in children and various metabolic issues in adults.
7. Hypogonadism: A condition in which the sex glands produce little or no sex hormones.

Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment of endocrine disorders are crucial for maintaining overall health and preventing complications. Regular check-ups and awareness of potential symptoms can help in identifying these conditions early.

Lifestyle Factors Affecting Endocrine Health

While some endocrine disorders have genetic or autoimmune origins, lifestyle factors can significantly impact the health and function of the endocrine system. By making informed choices, individuals can support their endocrine health and potentially reduce the risk of developing certain disorders.

How can we support endocrine health through lifestyle choices?

• Balanced nutrition: A diet rich in whole foods, lean proteins, healthy fats, and a variety of fruits and vegetables can provide the nutrients necessary for optimal hormone production and function.
• Regular exercise: Physical activity can help regulate hormone levels, improve insulin sensitivity, and support overall endocrine health.
• Stress management: Chronic stress can disrupt hormone balance. Techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing exercises can help manage stress levels.
• Adequate sleep: Quality sleep is essential for hormone regulation. Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep per night and maintain a consistent sleep schedule.
• Limiting exposure to endocrine disruptors: Certain chemicals found in plastics, pesticides, and personal care products can interfere with hormone function. Choosing organic products and reducing plastic use can help minimize exposure.
• Regular health check-ups: Routine medical examinations and blood tests can help detect potential endocrine issues early.

By adopting these lifestyle practices, individuals can support their endocrine system’s function and contribute to overall health and well-being.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to evolve, new avenues for research and treatment are emerging. These advancements hold promise for improving the diagnosis, management, and prevention of endocrine disorders.

What are some promising areas of endocrine research?

Several exciting areas of research are currently being explored in the field of endocrinology:

• Personalized medicine: Tailoring treatments based on an individual’s genetic profile and hormone levels to improve efficacy and reduce side effects.
• Artificial pancreas technology: Advanced systems that combine continuous glucose monitoring with automated insulin delivery for better management of diabetes.
• Endocrine disruptor research: Further investigation into the long-term effects of environmental chemicals on hormone function and the development of strategies to mitigate their impact.
• Hormone replacement therapies: Development of more targeted and bioidentical hormone therapies for conditions such as menopause and andropause.
• Gut-endocrine axis: Exploring the complex relationship between gut microbiota and endocrine function, potentially leading to new therapeutic approaches for various disorders.
• Chronobiology and endocrine rhythms: Investigating how circadian rhythms influence hormone production and developing treatments that align with these natural cycles.

These research areas hold the potential to revolutionize our approach to endocrine health, offering more precise, effective, and personalized treatments for a wide range of disorders.

How might future treatments improve endocrine care?

As research progresses, we can anticipate several improvements in endocrine care:

1. More accurate diagnostic tools: Advanced imaging techniques and molecular diagnostics may allow for earlier and more precise identification of endocrine disorders.
2. Targeted therapies: Medications that can more specifically address hormone imbalances with fewer side effects.
3. Regenerative medicine: Potential treatments that could restore or replace damaged endocrine tissues, such as stem cell therapies for type 1 diabetes.
4. Improved hormone delivery systems: Development of long-acting hormone formulations or novel delivery methods that could improve treatment adherence and quality of life for patients.
5. Integration of artificial intelligence: AI-powered systems could help in monitoring hormone levels, predicting disease progression, and optimizing treatment plans.

These advancements could significantly improve the quality of life for individuals with endocrine disorders and potentially prevent the onset of certain conditions through early intervention.

Integrating Endocrine Health into Holistic Wellness

As we continue to unravel the complexities of the endocrine system, it becomes increasingly clear that hormonal health is intrinsically linked to overall wellness. Adopting a holistic approach to health that considers the interplay between the endocrine system and other bodily systems can lead to improved outcomes and a better quality of life.

How can we incorporate endocrine health into a holistic wellness plan?

Consider the following strategies for integrating endocrine health into a comprehensive wellness approach:

• Mind-body practices: Techniques such as mindfulness meditation, tai chi, or yoga can help reduce stress and promote hormonal balance.
• Nutritional support: Working with a nutritionist to develop a diet plan that supports hormone production and function.
• Environmental awareness: Making informed choices about household products, personal care items, and food packaging to minimize exposure to potential endocrine disruptors.
• Regular physical activity: Engaging in a mix of cardiovascular exercise, strength training, and flexibility work to support overall endocrine function.
• Sleep hygiene: Prioritizing good sleep habits to support the natural rhythms of hormone production.
• Stress management techniques: Incorporating stress-reduction strategies such as deep breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation, or biofeedback.
• Complementary therapies: Exploring evidence-based complementary approaches such as acupuncture or herbal medicine under the guidance of qualified practitioners.
• Regular health screenings: Staying proactive about endocrine health through routine check-ups and appropriate screenings based on age, gender, and risk factors.

By adopting a holistic approach that considers the interconnectedness of the endocrine system with other aspects of health, individuals can work towards achieving optimal wellness and potentially preventing or managing endocrine-related issues more effectively.

What role does patient education play in endocrine health?

Patient education is crucial in the management and prevention of endocrine disorders. Empowering individuals with knowledge about their endocrine system can lead to:

1. Better treatment adherence: Understanding the importance of medications and lifestyle changes can improve compliance with treatment plans.
2. Early detection: Awareness of potential symptoms can lead to earlier diagnosis and intervention.
3. Improved self-management: Knowledge about how lifestyle factors affect hormone levels can enable individuals to make informed choices about diet, exercise, and stress management.
4. Enhanced communication with healthcare providers: Educated patients can more effectively communicate their symptoms and concerns, leading to better-tailored care.
5. Reduced anxiety: Understanding the nature of endocrine disorders can help alleviate fears and uncertainties associated with diagnosis and treatment.

Healthcare providers, endocrinologists, and patient advocacy groups play a vital role in disseminating accurate information and promoting endocrine health literacy among the general public.

As we continue to advance our understanding of the endocrine system, the integration of this knowledge into everyday life becomes increasingly important. By recognizing the far-reaching effects of hormonal balance on overall health, individuals can take proactive steps to support their endocrine function and, by extension, their general well-being. The future of endocrine health lies not just in medical advancements but also in the empowerment of individuals to take an active role in their hormonal health through informed lifestyle choices and regular medical care.

The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body: Function and Disorders

Written by Barbara Brody

• What Is the Endocrine System?
• What Is a Gland?
• Endocrine System Functions
• Parts of the Endocrine System
• Health Issues
• Endocrine System Disorders
• More

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

If your endocrine system isn’t healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it’s needed for energy.

A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine and exocrine glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system:

• Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
• Controls how your hormones are released
• Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you’re a woman) or testes (if you’re a man) are in your pelvic region.

• Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
• Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; antidiuretic hormone(ADH) (vasopressin), which controls blood pressure and helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidney, corticotropin /ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone. which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, oxytocin which helps in milk ejection during breast feeding; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
• Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
• Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your growth and metabolism. If this gland doesn’t make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which may contribute to bone strength by helping calcium to be incorporated into bone.
• Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
• Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child’s immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
• Adrenals. Best known for making the “fight or flight” hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism heart rate, oxygen intake, blood flow, and sexual function, among other things.
• Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
• If you don’t make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
• Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
• Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.

As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease, osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.

No matter how old you are, stress, infections, and being around certain chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. And genetics or lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis.

• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing’s disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone, your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation. This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early — around 8 in girls and 9 in boys.

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regulation and influence on the body

Content

• 1 The endocrine system
  • 1. 1 The importance of the endocrine system in the body
  • 1.2 The functions of the endocrine system
  • 1.3 The interaction of the endocrine system with other body systems
  • 1.4 Main organs of the endocrine system
  • 1.5 Hormones and their role in the regulation of the body
  • 1.6 Disorders of the endocrine system and their consequences
  • 1.7 The role of the endocrine system in metabolism
  • 1.8 Endocrine glands and their characteristics
  • 1.9 Influence of the endocrine system on the growth and development of the body
  • 1.10 Endocrine system and reproductive function
  • 1.11 Video on the topic:
  • 1.12 Question-answer: 900 04
  • • 1.12.0.1 What is the role of the endocrine system in the body?
    • 1.12.0.2 Which glands belong to the endocrine system?
    • 1.12.0.3 How does the endocrine system control metabolism?
• 1.13 The influence of the endocrine system on immunity
• 1. 14 The importance of balance in the functioning of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands in the body that regulates many processes, including metabolism, growth, development, and organ function. This article discusses the role of the endocrine system, the functions of the major glands, and the pathway of hormone transmission in the body. Learn more about how to keep your endocrine system healthy and what problems can result from an imbalance.

The endocrine system plays an important role in the regulation of various processes in the human body. It consists of endocrine glands that produce hormones and control various functions of organs and tissues. Hormones secreted by the endocrine system are intermediary substances that transmit information and signals between various cells and organs of the body.

The organs of the endocrine system perform the functions of regulating metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, adaptation to stress and other important processes. The endocrine system affects the functioning of organs and tissues by changing the activity of cells, increasing or decreasing the secretion of hormones into the blood.

The hormones of the endocrine system affect the body through target cells that have special receptors for certain hormones. Receptors located on the cell membrane or inside the cell bind to hormones and cause a specific cell response. Thus, the endocrine system plays a role in maintaining homeostasis, the balance of all processes in the body.

Various disorders of the endocrine system can lead to various diseases. For example, an underactive thyroid gland can cause hypothyroidism, which is characterized by decreased metabolism and skewed hormonal balance. On the contrary, excessive secretion of thyroid hormones can lead to the development of hyperthyroidism, accompanied by a rapid heartbeat and high blood pressure.

Thus, the endocrine system is an important regulator of many body functions. Its violation can lead to the development of various diseases and requires an integrated approach to diagnosis and treatment.

The importance of the endocrine system in the body

The endocrine system plays an important role in the regulation of various processes in the body. It is made up of glands called endocrine glands that produce hormones and release them into the blood. Hormones produced by the endocrine glands act on various organs and tissues of the body, controlling their functions and maintaining an optimal state.

One of the main functions of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis in the body. This means that the endocrine system helps to maintain the stability of the body’s internal environment by maintaining optimal levels of substances and processes such as body temperature, blood sugar, blood pressure, and others.

The endocrine system also plays a role in regulating the growth and development of the body. Hormones produced by the endocrine glands control the growth of tissues and organs and support optimal physical and mental development.

In addition, the endocrine system affects the mood and emotional state of a person. Hormones that are involved in the regulation of these processes affect the nervous system and can cause feelings of joy, sadness, stress, etc.

In general, the endocrine system plays the role of a “chemical messenger” in the body, providing communication between various organs and body systems. Thanks to it, the body can adapt to changing environmental conditions and maintain its performance.

Functions of the endocrine system

Regulation of the internal environment: One of the main functions of the endocrine system is to maintain the stability of the internal environment of the body. Hormones are produced by endocrine glands and influence various physiological processes such as body temperature, blood sugar levels, and fluid and electrolyte balance.

Development and growth: Endocrine hormones play an important role in the development and growth of the body. They stimulate cell division and differentiation, which contributes to the development of organs and tissues. For example, growth hormone promotes growth in childhood.

Metabolic regulation: Endocrine system hormones play an important role in the regulation of metabolism. They control the rate of metabolic processes such as the intake and distribution of nutrients, the synthesis of proteins and carbohydrates, and the breakdown of fats. For example, insulin regulates blood sugar levels and is involved in the process of glucose metabolism.

Reproductive function: Hormones of the endocrine system play an important role in the regulation of reproductive function. They control the maturation of eggs and sperm, regulate the menstrual cycle in women, and are involved in the process of fertilization and pregnancy.

Stress regulation and adaptation: The endocrine system plays an important role in regulating stress and adapting the body to a changing environment. Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol are produced when exposed to stressors and help the body adjust to new conditions. They increase energy production, increase physical activity and increase the level of readiness of the body for possible danger.

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Interaction of the endocrine system with other body systems

The endocrine system, which plays an important role in the regulation of many processes in the body, interacts with other systems, ensuring their coordination and coordination of work.

One way of interaction is signaling between the endocrine system and other systems. Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands enter the bloodstream and are distributed throughout the body, reaching the target tissues and exerting their effect on them. Thus, the endocrine system provides a global impact on the work of all organs and tissues.

The endocrine system also closely interacts with the nervous system, making up with it the so-called neuroendocrine system. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland, which are located in the brain, play a key role in regulating the endocrine system. The hypothalamus produces hormones that control the release of pituitary hormones, and the pituitary gland, in turn, stimulates or inhibits the function of other endocrine glands. Such interactions allow the endocrine system to quickly respond to changes in the external environment and internal conditions of the body.

Some organs, such as the thyroid, adrenals, and gonads, perform both endocrine and non-endocrine functions. They provide interaction between the endocrine and other body systems. For example, the thyroid gland produces hormones that control metabolism and growth, as well as affecting the nervous system and the cardiovascular system. Thus, the endocrine system not only regulates the physiological functions of the general organism, but also interacts with many other body systems, ensuring its homeostasis and adaptation to changing conditions.

Main organs of the endocrine system

The pituitary gland is a small organ located in the brain that controls the other glands of the endocrine system. It produces a number of hormones that stimulate or inhibit the functions of other glands.

The thyroid gland is an organ located in the neck that is responsible for the secretion of hormones that regulate metabolic processes in the body. It produces the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which affect the functioning of the heart, digestive system and brain.

The adrenal glands are paired glands located directly above the kidneys. They produce hormones responsible for the body’s stress response, blood pressure regulation, metabolism, and sexual function.

Pancreas is an organ located in the abdominal cavity that plays an important role in metabolism. It produces insulin and other hormones that regulate blood sugar and nutrient absorption.

The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the pituitary gland. It produces hormones that regulate hunger, thirst, sleep, mood, and sexual function.

Gonads are sex glands such as the ovaries in women and the testicles in men. They produce hormones that are responsible for the development and functioning of the genital organs, and also regulate the reproductive system.

Hormones and their role in the regulation of the body

Hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine glands and play an important role in the regulation of various processes in the body. They are involved in the control of the functioning of organs and systems, maintaining their homeostasis and ensuring the proper functioning of the body.

Hormones can affect the cells of organs and tissues both at the site of their formation and at sites remote from them. They act by binding to receptors on the surface or inside cells and triggering a whole range of biological reactions. Each hormone performs its specific function and is responsible for certain processes in the body.

For example, the hormone insulin regulates blood glucose levels. It stimulates the uptake and use of glucose by cells and promotes its storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Thus, insulin plays an important role in maintaining normal blood sugar levels.

Another important hormone is adrenaline, which is released during stress or exercise. Adrenaline raises blood pressure and increases heart rate, improving blood flow and preparing the body for increased activity.

Hormones also regulate the growth and development of the body, sexual function, metabolic processes, the immune system, adaptation to the environment and other important physiological processes. They are key factors in maintaining the balance of the internal environment and ensuring the normal functioning of the body.

Disorders of the endocrine system and their consequences

The endocrine system plays an important role in the regulation of various processes in the body. However, violations in the functioning of this system can lead to serious consequences.

One of the common disorders of the endocrine system is hyperfunction, when the secretion of hormones exceeds the norm. This can lead to such consequences as metabolic disorders, high blood pressure, violation of female and male reproductive health.

Another common disorder is the hypofunction of the endocrine system, when the secretion of hormones is reduced. This can lead to a slowdown in metabolism, impaired growth and development of the body, and disorders of the digestive system.

Imbalance of hormones can also lead to the development of endocrine diseases such as diabetes, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, etc. These diseases are accompanied by disturbances in the functioning of organs and systems of the body, which can lead to serious complications and even threaten life.

In addition, disorders of the endocrine system can affect the psycho-emotional state of a person, causing depression, drowsiness, irritability and other unpleasant symptoms.

To prevent or treat endocrine disorders, see an endocrinologist, get regular medical check-ups, and follow lifestyle and medication recommendations.

In general, disorders of the endocrine system can seriously affect a person’s health and quality of life. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to your endocrine system and seek medical help in a timely manner if you experience symptoms or suspect disorders.

The role of the endocrine system in metabolism

The endocrine system plays a significant role in the regulation of metabolism in the body. It ensures the functioning of the endocrine glands (endocrine glands), which produce hormones and control many metabolic processes.

Hormones secreted by the endocrine system control metabolism at the cellular level. They regulate the rate of formation and destruction of substances, and also control the redistribution of energy in the body. For example, thyroid hormones are involved in the regulation of protein, carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

Endocrine glands actively interact with other body systems such as the nervous and immune systems. For example, adrenal hormones are involved in the response to stressful situations, which affects metabolism. Pancreatic hormones also regulate the level of glucose in the blood, affecting the metabolism in the body.

The endocrine system has a complex and finely tuned feedback system that balances hormone production and action. This allows the endocrine system to precisely regulate metabolism, adjusting to the changing needs of the body.

Thus, the endocrine system plays a key role in metabolism, providing precise regulation of metabolic processes in the body.

Endocrine glands and their characteristics

Endocrine glands are organs in the body that produce and secrete substances called hormones. Hormones are carried through the blood or lymph and affect the functioning of various organs and systems of the body. The endocrine system plays an important role in regulating various bodily functions such as growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction.

The major endocrine glands are pituitary , thyroid , adrenals , ovaries in women and testicles in men, and pancreas and parathyroid glands . They are located in different parts of the body and perform different functions in the body.

The pituitary gland is one of the most important glands of the endocrine system. It acts as the main controller and controls the work of other glands. The pituitary gland produces and releases hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands and signal them to produce and release certain hormones.

The thyroid gland is responsible for regulating the body’s metabolism and producing hormones that affect the immune system, nervous system and sexual function. Stimulation of the thyroid gland occurs with the help of the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that activate its activity.

The adrenal glands produce hormones that regulate metabolism, maintain blood sugar levels, control blood pressure and are involved in stress reactions. Adrenal hormones affect the functioning of other organs and systems of the body.

The pancreas produces hormones that control blood sugar levels and keep them normal. It also secretes enzymes that are involved in the process of digestion and the breakdown of food.

Endocrine glands play an important role in the body, regulating many functions and processes. Different glands perform different functions and interact with each other to ensure the harmony of the body.

Influence of the endocrine system on the growth and development of the body

The endocrine system plays a key role in the regulation and control of body growth and development. It performs this function by producing and secreting hormones that act on various organs and tissues.

One of the most important hormones responsible for growth is growth hormone, which is produced by the anterior pituitary gland. It stimulates the growth and division of cells in the body, especially in skeletal and muscle tissues. A lack of this hormone can lead to slow growth and development, and an excess can lead to the development of gigantism or akiromegaly.

The parathyroid glands also play an important role in growth regulation. They secrete the parathyroid hormone, which controls the levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood. Calcium is essential for the growth and development of bones, so a lack of this hormone can lead to a delay in the growth and development of the skeleton.

The thyroid gland is another important organ of the endocrine system that influences growth and development. It secretes the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which regulate metabolism, energy metabolism and growth. Deficiency or excess of these hormones can lead to problems with growth and development of the body, such as stunted growth or slow metabolic processes.

The influence of the endocrine system on the growth and development of the body can also be seen in the example of sex hormones. They play an important role in the maturation of the reproductive organs and influence the physical development of a person throughout life. In men, testosterone production affects the development of the genital organs and muscle growth, and in women, estrogens regulate the development of breasts and the formation of female characteristics.

In general, the endocrine system plays a crucial role in the growth and development of the body, it is responsible for controlling and maintaining the balance of hormones, which contributes to the normal functioning of all body systems, including physical and mental development.

Endocrine system and reproductive function

The endocrine system plays an important role in regulating the reproductive function of the body. Endocrine glands such as the pituitary, thyroid, and gonads produce hormones that control all aspects of the development and functioning of the reproductive system.

The hypothalamus, a small area in the brain, controls the pituitary gland, the main endocrine gland. Through a variety of hormones, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland control thyroid hormone secretion, which in turn plays an important role in reproductive function.

Sex hormones such as estrogens and progesterone in women and testosterone in men are also products of the endocrine system’s action on the gonads. They regulate the growth and development of the sexual organs, energy and metabolism, and also control the menstrual cycle in women and spermatogenesis in men.

The influence of the endocrine system on reproductive function is manifested not only in physiological processes, but also affects the emotional state and behavior of a person. Changes in hormone levels caused by an imbalance in the endocrine system can lead to a variety of reproductive health problems, including male and female infertility, menstrual irregularities, and decreased libido.

Proper functioning of the endocrine system and regular examination by an endocrinologist help maintain the health of the reproductive system and ensure the possibility of reproductive offspring.

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Q&A:

What is the role of the endocrine system in the body?

The endocrine system acts as a regulator and coordinator of all important processes in the body. It controls metabolism, regulates growth and development, is involved in reproductive function, and also affects mood and behavior.

Which glands belong to the endocrine system?

The endocrine system includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testicles (in women and men respectively).

How does the endocrine system control metabolism?

The endocrine system regulates metabolism with the help of hormones produced by the endocrine glands. Hormones transmit signals between various organs and tissues, controlling processes such as the breakdown of food, the release and absorption of nutrients, fat metabolism and body temperature.

Influence of the endocrine system on immunity

The endocrine system plays an important role in the regulation of the body’s immunity. Endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal glands, and organs of the reproductive system, produce hormones that affect immune cells and body processes.

One of the key hormones associated with immunity is cortisol, which is produced by the adrenal glands. Cortisol has an anti-inflammatory effect and regulates the activity of immune cells. It can enhance or suppress the immune response depending on the situation.

The thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which influence the formation and functioning of immune cells. These hormones also regulate metabolism and body temperature, which are important for keeping the immune system functioning properly.

Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone also have an effect on the immune system. They can increase or decrease the activity of immune cells, affecting the body’s immune responses. For example, during pregnancy, estrogen levels are high, which helps to reduce the immune activity of the body and protect the fetus.

In addition, the immune system can affect the endocrine system. The immune system’s responses to infections or inflammation can cause changes in hormone levels that affect the function of the endocrine system.

The relationship between the endocrine system and immunity has been confirmed by a number of studies and is of great practical importance. Understanding these relationships can help develop new methods for the treatment and prevention of various immune and endocrine diseases.

The importance of balance in the work of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is one of the main regulatory systems in the body. It consists of endocrine glands that produce hormones and control many processes in the body. Balance in the work of the endocrine system plays a key role in maintaining the health and normal functioning of the body.

The importance of balance in the work of the endocrine system is manifested in the regulation of many physiological processes. Hormones produced by the endocrine glands control metabolism, growth and development, the functioning of the immune system, the reproductive system, and also affect the mood and emotional state of a person.

Disruption of the endocrine system balance can lead to various diseases such as hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, diabetes, adenomas of endocrine glands and others. Even minor changes in hormone levels can have a significant impact on the body and cause various symptoms and disorders in the functioning of organs and systems.

Maintaining a balance in the functioning of the endocrine system requires an integrated approach, including regular monitoring and control of hormone levels, proper nutrition, moderate physical activity and sufficient rest. It is also important to pay attention to the signals of your body, and if any changes are found, seek help from an endocrinologist to diagnose and prescribe appropriate treatment.

Functions of the endocrine glands in the human body. Tests for hormones and their interpretation.

The human endocrine system consists of organs called endocrine glands, which regulate the work of the whole organism by releasing biologically active substances – hormones – into the circulatory system. These substances perform paramount functions in the body: they help maintain homeostasis, control growth and development, participate in metabolic processes, are responsible for responding to changes in environmental conditions, and regulate the reproductive system.

Endocrine glands include:

Thyroid. Produces hormones – thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin. These hormones are involved in metabolism, increasing its intensity, regulate growth processes in the body, increase the level of consumption of vital oxygen by organs and tissues.

Parathyroid glands. They produce parathyroid hormone that regulates the level of calcium in the body, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the motor apparatus and nervous system.

Thymus (thymus). This organ occupies a central place in the human immune system, not without reason the word “thymus” is translated from ancient Greek as “life force”. The thymus produces T-lymphocytes – immune cells that provide antiviral and antitumor protection of the body. It secretes a number of hormones into the blood: thymalin, thymosin, IGF-1, thymopoietin, which are responsible for the functional activity of the immune system.

Adrenals. They produce the so-called stress hormone – adrenaline, which is involved in the body’s response to external stressful situations. When a large amount of adrenaline is released into the blood, breathing quickens, the heart rate increases, blood vessels constrict, and the pupils dilate.

Pancreas. Is the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It produces the hormones insulin, which lowers the level of glucose in the blood, and glucagon, on the contrary, increases it.

Gonads. Women have ovaries, men have testicles. The hormones produced by these glands are responsible for reproductive function.

Pituitary and hypothalamus. Form the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The pituitary gland produces hormones that control almost the entire endocrine system. Among them, the most important is the growth hormone – somatotropin, which affects the growth of bones, cartilage and muscles.

Epiphysis (pineal body, or pineal gland). The organ performs important functions: it slows down growth hormones, inhibits the development of tumors, and affects sexual development. It produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which controls the water balance of the body, oxytocin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, and melatonin, a hormone that controls the sequence of sleep phases.

Based on the foregoing, we can follow the conclusion that the importance of the endocrine system cannot be overestimated – its activity extends to all organs of the body and all processes occurring in it. Therefore, all deviations from the norm in the operation of this system require immediate medical intervention.

Symptoms of hormonal imbalance

There are a lot of symptoms of malfunctioning of the endocrine glands, among them are:

• Irregular or absent menstruation in women;
• Miscarriage or infertility;
• Loss of sexual desire;
• Weight gain;
• Eruptions on the body, acne;
• Deterioration of hair and nails;
• Sleep disturbances, lethargy, increased fatigue;
• Emotional instability: tearfulness, irascibility, nervousness;
• The development of osteoporosis is a disease that leads to brittle bones.

It is worth noting that none of the above symptoms is a direct confirmation of the presence of a hormonal imbalance, but only a possible consequence. To make an accurate diagnosis, it is necessary to undergo a complete examination by an endocrinologist, which includes the method of functional diagnostics (ultrasound, MRI), as well as laboratory blood tests, which will be discussed below.

How is blood tested for hormones?

A blood test for hormones is the most indicative and informative method for detecting any pathologies in the work of the endocrine glands. However, it is important to consider that many factors influence the hormonal background: the time of day, the menstrual cycle in women, and medication. For this reason, the preparation for taking tests for a hormonal study must be taken with all seriousness. If this is neglected, then the result of the analysis may be incorrect and, at best, it will have to be retaken, and at worst, an incorrect diagnosis may be made on its basis and the wrong treatment may be prescribed, which can lead to irreparable consequences.

To prepare for donating blood for hormones, the following general rules must be observed:

• On the eve of the test, you should give up physical activity, try to avoid stressful situations, stop any physiotherapy procedures, exclude oral contraceptives, alcohol, fatty foods and products containing iodine. It is also recommended to postpone the ECG, ultrasound, x-ray examination for a while after the test.
• An important point is taking medications – it is necessary to notify the doctor who ordered the hormonal blood test about the fact of taking medications. He will decide whether to cancel or continue taking medications at the time of the test.
• An analysis for a hormonal study is taken strictly on an empty stomach. Therefore, it is recommended to stop eating 12 hours before blood sampling.
• In the morning, before the test, it is forbidden to chew gum, drink tea and smoke.
• Just before donating blood, rest for 15-10 minutes.
• Women need to take into account their menstrual cycle, because. it is possible to examine the blood for some hormones only in certain periods of this cycle.
• To track the dynamics of indicators of the level of certain hormones, a re-analysis is required. It is rented at approximately the same time as the previous one, in compliance with all the above rules.

Blood sampling for analysis is carried out in the first half of the day in the morning. The biomaterial is taken from the cubital vein.

Explanation of tests

Thyroid hormones

Triiodothyronine , or T3 – gives a general assessment of the work of the thyroid gland. This hormone is determined both in free form (norm: from 2.6 to 5.7 pmol/l.), And in the serum state, (general form; norm: from 1.3 to 2.7 nmol/l). An increase in the indicator indicates the use of narcotic substances: methadone, heroin, amphetamine, HIV infection, renal failure, hyperthyroidism. The decrease was established with the use of androgens, danazol, dexamethasone, propranolol.

Thyroxine , or T4 – regulates energy metabolism in the body. Norm: 10.8 – 22.0 pmol / l. A low level is observed with hyperthyroidism, hemolysis. Elevated levels – when taking oral contraceptives, methodone, heroin, estrogen.

Thyroglobulin , or Tg – is prescribed for suspected malignant neoplasms. Norm: < 55 ng / ml.

Antibodies to thyroglobulin – are prescribed for suspected autoimmune thyroid diseases. Norm: 0 – 18 U / ml.

Microsomal antibodies are the most accurate indicator of the presence of autoimmune diseases. A deviation from the norm < 5.6 U / ml is proof of the aggression of the immune system to its own body.

Thyroxine-binding globulin , or TSH, is responsible for the transport of the hormones T3 and T4. Norm: from 16.8 to 22.5 mcg / ml. An increased indicator may indicate pregnancy, a lower one – with cirrhosis of the liver.

Adrenal hormones

Cortisol – regulates carbohydrate metabolism. Norm: from 230 to 750 nm / l. A low rate may be the result of chronic adrenal insufficiency, and a high one may indicate oncology or adenoma.

Aldosterone – responsible for the water-salt balance. Norms: in a horizontal position 17. 6-230.2 pg / ml; in a vertical position 25.2-392 pg / ml. Elevated levels of the hormone in the blood usually indicate an adrenal tumor.

Norepinephrine and epinephrine – normalize heart rate, blood pressure, form glucose levels. Norms: from 1.92 to 2.46 nm / l for adrenaline, from 0.62 to 3.23 nm / l for norepinephrine. An increase in indicators indicates kidney disease, Itsenko-Cushing’s syndrome, emotional and physical workload of the body, a decrease indicates pathology of the hypothalamus.

Sex hormones

Estradiol – is responsible for the production of germ cells and the proper development of pregnancy. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 200 to 285 pm/l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 440 to 575 pi/l, during menopause from 50 to 133 pm/l. A lower indicator may indicate a tumor in the ovaries, an increased indicator – with their insufficient functioning.

Testosterone is the main male hormone. Responsible for the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, stimulates the growth of muscle mass and bones. Norms: for men – 2 -10 ng / ml, for women – 0.2 – 1 ng / l.

Progesterone – ensures the proper development of the genital organs in women. The norm in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) is from 1 to 2.2 nm / l, the norm in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) is from 23 to 30 nm / l, during menopause from 1 to 1.8 nm / l. An increase in the indicator is observed with tumors of the adrenal cortex, a decrease – with ovarian sclerosis.

Pituitary hormones

Thyroid stimulating hormone , or TSH, stimulates the production of the main thyroid hormones, so deviations from the reference values ​​​​indicate thyroid dysfunction. Norm: 0.4-4.0 honey / l.

Somatotropic hormone , or STH – the hormone of the anterior pituitary gland, is responsible for stimulating the mouth of bones, muscle mass and other organs of the human body. Norm: < 10.0 ng / ml. Exceeding the value of the established norm indicates gigantism, acromegaly.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone , or ACTH – stimulates the synthesis of hormones in the adrenal cortex. Norm: < 46 pg / ml. Deviations from the norm are observed in Itsenko-Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, as well as in other disorders of the adrenal glands.

Prolactin is a hormone responsible for the growth of the mammary glands in women and the functioning of the prostate in men. The norm for the stronger sex is 100 – 265 mcg / l, for the fair sex – from 130 to 540 skg / l during the childbearing period.

Follicle-stimulating hormone , FSH – stimulates the growth of follicles in women, is responsible for the functioning of the seminiferous tubules in men. The norm in women: in the first phase of the menstrual cycle (follicular phase) from 1.37 – 9.90 IU / l, in the corpus luteum phase (luteal phase) from 1.