How is blood pressure measured. What do systolic and diastolic numbers mean. Why is regular blood pressure monitoring important. What are normal and abnormal blood pressure ranges. How can you prepare for accurate blood pressure readings.

The Basics of Blood Pressure Measurement

Blood pressure is a crucial indicator of cardiovascular health, measuring the force exerted on artery walls as the heart pumps blood throughout the body. Understanding how to measure blood pressure accurately and interpret the results is essential for maintaining optimal health.

What Does a Blood Pressure Reading Consist Of?

A blood pressure reading consists of two numbers:

• Systolic pressure: The top number, representing the pressure when the heart contracts
• Diastolic pressure: The bottom number, indicating the pressure when the heart is at rest between beats

These numbers are typically expressed in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), such as 120/80 mm Hg.

The Proper Technique for Measuring Blood Pressure

Accurate blood pressure measurement requires proper technique and preparation. Here’s a step-by-step guide to ensure reliable readings:

1. Sit in a chair with your back supported and feet flat on the floor
2. Rest your arm on a surface at heart level
3. Ensure your upper arm is bare or remove tight clothing
4. Wrap the blood pressure cuff snugly around your upper arm, 1 inch above the elbow
5. Inflate the cuff quickly using the squeeze bulb or automated device
6. Slowly release the pressure while listening for pulse sounds
7. Record the systolic pressure when the first pulse sound is heard
8. Note the diastolic pressure when the pulse sound disappears

Common Mistakes to Avoid During Measurement

To ensure accuracy, avoid these common pitfalls:

• Inflating the cuff too slowly or not high enough
• Releasing air too quickly from the cuff
• Taking readings immediately after physical activity or consuming caffeine
• Measuring blood pressure while under stress

Preparing for Accurate Blood Pressure Readings

Proper preparation is key to obtaining reliable blood pressure measurements. Follow these guidelines to ensure the most accurate results:

• Rest for at least 5-10 minutes before taking your blood pressure
• Avoid caffeine, tobacco, and exercise for 30 minutes prior to measurement
• Empty your bladder before the reading
• Sit quietly and comfortably during the measurement
• Take multiple readings, at least 1 minute apart, for a more comprehensive assessment

When is the Best Time to Measure Blood Pressure?

For optimal monitoring, consider these timing recommendations:

• Take readings at the same time each day for consistency
• Measure in the morning before taking medications and in the evening
• Keep a log of readings over a week to provide your healthcare provider with comprehensive data

Interpreting Blood Pressure Results

Understanding your blood pressure readings is crucial for managing your cardiovascular health. Here’s a breakdown of the different blood pressure categories:

• Normal: Below 120/80 mm Hg
• Elevated: 120-129/less than 80 mm Hg
• Stage 1 Hypertension: 130-139/80-89 mm Hg
• Stage 2 Hypertension: 140/90 mm Hg or higher
• Hypertensive Crisis: Higher than 180/120 mm Hg

Is a Single High Reading Cause for Concern?

A single elevated reading doesn’t necessarily indicate hypertension. Blood pressure can fluctuate due to various factors, including stress, physical activity, and time of day. Consistent readings over time provide a more accurate picture of your cardiovascular health.

The Importance of Regular Blood Pressure Monitoring

Regular blood pressure checks are essential for maintaining cardiovascular health and detecting potential issues early. Here’s why consistent monitoring matters:

• Early detection of hypertension
• Prevention of heart disease, stroke, and kidney problems
• Monitoring the effectiveness of blood pressure medications
• Identifying lifestyle factors that may affect blood pressure

How Often Should Blood Pressure Be Checked?

The frequency of blood pressure checks depends on various factors:

• Adults 18-39 with normal blood pressure: Every 3-5 years
• Adults 40 and older: At least once a year
• People with elevated blood pressure or other risk factors: More frequently, as advised by a healthcare provider

Managing High Blood Pressure: Lifestyle Changes and Treatment Options

If you’re diagnosed with high blood pressure, there are several approaches to managing the condition:

Lifestyle Modifications

• Adopt a heart-healthy diet, such as the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) eating plan
• Reduce sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day
• Engage in regular physical activity, aiming for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week
• Maintain a healthy weight
• Limit alcohol consumption
• Quit smoking
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques or meditation

Medication Options

If lifestyle changes alone aren’t sufficient to control blood pressure, your healthcare provider may recommend medications such as:

• Diuretics
• ACE inhibitors
• Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)
• Calcium channel blockers
• Beta-blockers

The choice of medication depends on individual factors, including overall health, age, and other medical conditions.

Home Blood Pressure Monitoring: Tips and Best Practices

Home blood pressure monitoring can be an effective way to track your cardiovascular health between doctor visits. Here are some tips for successful home monitoring:

• Choose a validated, automated upper arm blood pressure monitor
• Ensure the cuff size is appropriate for your arm circumference
• Take readings at the same time each day, preferably in the morning and evening
• Sit quietly for 5 minutes before each measurement
• Take 2-3 readings, 1 minute apart, and record all results
• Share your log with your healthcare provider regularly

Are Wrist Blood Pressure Monitors Accurate?

While wrist blood pressure monitors are convenient, they tend to be less accurate than upper arm devices. If you choose to use a wrist monitor, follow these guidelines:

• Position your wrist at heart level during measurement
• Keep your arm and wrist still throughout the reading
• Validate wrist monitor readings against those from an upper arm device or at your doctor’s office

Blood Pressure Variations: Understanding Fluctuations

Blood pressure naturally fluctuates throughout the day due to various factors. Understanding these variations can help you interpret your readings more accurately:

Factors Influencing Blood Pressure

• Time of day: Blood pressure typically follows a daily pattern, being lowest during sleep and rising upon waking
• Physical activity: Exercise can temporarily elevate blood pressure
• Stress and emotions: Anxiety, excitement, or anger can cause short-term increases
• Meals: Blood pressure may rise slightly after eating
• Hydration levels: Dehydration can lead to a temporary increase in blood pressure
• Medications: Some drugs can affect blood pressure readings

White Coat Hypertension and Masked Hypertension

Two phenomena that can complicate blood pressure interpretation are:

• White coat hypertension: Elevated readings in a medical setting due to anxiety
• Masked hypertension: Normal readings in a medical setting but elevated at home

These conditions underscore the importance of home monitoring and sharing comprehensive data with your healthcare provider.

The Link Between Blood Pressure and Other Health Conditions

High blood pressure is often associated with other health issues. Understanding these connections can help in managing overall health:

Conditions Linked to Hypertension

• Heart disease: Hypertension increases the risk of heart attacks and heart failure
• Stroke: High blood pressure is a leading cause of stroke
• Kidney disease: Chronic hypertension can damage kidney function
• Eye problems: Retinal damage can occur due to prolonged high blood pressure
• Diabetes: Many people with diabetes also have hypertension
• Metabolic syndrome: A cluster of conditions including high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol levels

Managing blood pressure effectively can help reduce the risk of these associated conditions.

Special Considerations in Blood Pressure Management

Certain groups may require special attention when it comes to blood pressure management:

Pregnancy and Blood Pressure

Pregnant women should monitor blood pressure closely due to the risk of preeclampsia. Guidelines for blood pressure during pregnancy may differ from standard recommendations.

Elderly Patients

Older adults may have different blood pressure targets and may be more susceptible to side effects from blood pressure medications. Individualized treatment plans are crucial for this population.

Children and Adolescents

Blood pressure norms for children and teenagers are based on age, sex, and height. Regular monitoring is important, especially for those with risk factors such as obesity or family history of hypertension.

Emerging Technologies in Blood Pressure Monitoring

Advancements in technology are revolutionizing blood pressure monitoring:

Wearable Devices

Smartwatches and fitness trackers are increasingly incorporating blood pressure monitoring capabilities. While convenient, these devices should be used in conjunction with traditional methods for accuracy.

Smartphone Apps

Various apps can help track blood pressure readings, provide reminders, and generate reports for healthcare providers. However, these apps should be used as tools to support, not replace, medical advice.

Continuous Monitoring Systems

New devices allow for 24-hour blood pressure monitoring, providing a more comprehensive picture of cardiovascular health. These systems can be particularly useful for detecting nighttime blood pressure patterns and assessing the effectiveness of treatments.

In conclusion, understanding blood pressure measurement and monitoring is crucial for maintaining cardiovascular health. By following proper techniques, interpreting results accurately, and working closely with healthcare providers, individuals can take control of their blood pressure and reduce the risk of associated health complications. Regular monitoring, coupled with lifestyle modifications and appropriate medical interventions when necessary, forms the cornerstone of effective blood pressure management.

Blood pressure measurement

Definition

Blood pressure is a measurement of the force on the walls of your arteries as your heart pumps blood through your body.

You can measure your blood pressure at home. You can also have it checked at your health care provider’s office or even a fire station.

Alternative Names

Diastolic blood pressure; Systolic blood pressure; Blood pressure reading; Measuring blood pressure; Hypertension – blood pressure measurement; High blood pressure – blood pressure measurement; Sphygmomanometry

How the Test is Performed

Sit in a chair with your back supported. Your legs should be uncrossed, and your feet on the floor.

Your arm should be supported so that your upper arm is at heart level. Roll up your sleeve so that your arm is bare. Be sure the sleeve is not bunched up and squeezing your arm. If it is, take your arm out of the sleeve, or remove the shirt entirely.

You or your provider will wrap the blood pressure cuff snugly around your upper arm. The lower edge of the cuff should be 1 inch (2.5 cm) above the bend of your elbow.

• The cuff will be inflated quickly. This is done either by pumping the squeeze bulb or pushing a button on the device. You will feel tightness around your arm.
• Next, the valve of the cuff is opened slightly, allowing the pressure to slowly fall.
• As the pressure falls, the reading when the sound of blood pulsing is first heard is recorded. This is the systolic pressure.
• As the air continues to be let out, the sounds will disappear. The point at which the sound stops is recorded. This is the diastolic pressure.

Inflating the cuff too slowly or not inflating it to a high enough pressure may cause a false reading. If you loosen the valve too much, you will not be able to measure your blood pressure.

The procedure may be done two or more times.

How to Prepare for the Test

Before you measure your blood pressure:

• Rest for at least 5 minutes, 10 minutes is better, before blood pressure is taken.
• DO NOT take your blood pressure when you are under stress, have had caffeine or used tobacco in the past 30 minutes, or have exercised recently.

Take 2 or 3 readings at a sitting. Take the readings 1 minute apart. Remain seated. When checking your blood pressure on your own, note the time of the readings. Your provider may suggest that you do your readings at certain times of the day.

• You may want to take your blood pressure in the morning and at night for a week.
• This will give you at least 14 readings and will help your provider make decisions about your blood pressure treatment.

How the Test will Feel

adam.com”>You will feel slight discomfort when the blood pressure cuff is inflated to its highest level.

Why the Test is Performed

High blood pressure has no symptoms, so you may not know if you have this problem. High blood pressure is often discovered during a visit to the provider for another reason, such as a routine physical exam.

Finding high blood pressure and treating it early can help prevent heart disease, stroke, eye problems, or chronic kidney disease. All adults 18 years and older should have their blood pressure checked regularly:

• Once a year for adults aged 40 years and older
• Once a year for people at increased risk for high blood pressure, including people who are overweight or obese, African Americans, and those with high-normal blood pressure 130 to 139/85 to 89 mm Hg
• Every 3 to 5 years for adults aged 18 to 39 years with blood pressure lower than 130/85 mm Hg who do not have other risk factors

adam.com”>Your provider may recommend more frequent screenings based on your blood pressure levels and other health conditions.

Normal Results

Blood pressure readings are usually given as two numbers. For example, your provider might tell you that your blood pressure is 120 over 80 (written as 120/80 mm Hg). One or both of these numbers can be too high.

Normal blood pressure is when the top number (systolic blood pressure) is below 120 most of the time, and the bottom number (diastolic blood pressure) is below 80 most of the time (written as 120/80 mm Hg).

What Abnormal Results Mean

If your blood pressure is between 120/80 and 130/80 mm Hg, you have elevated blood pressure.

• Your provider will recommend lifestyle changes to bring your blood pressure down to a normal range.
• Medicines are rarely used at this stage.

adam.com”>If your blood pressure is higher than 130/80 but lower than 140/90 mm Hg, you have Stage 1 high blood pressure. When thinking about the best treatment, you and your provider must consider:

• If you have no other diseases or risk factors, your provider may recommend lifestyle changes and repeat the measurements after a few months.
• If your blood pressure remains above 130/80 but lower than 140/90 mm Hg, your provider may recommend medicines to treat high blood pressure.
• If you have other diseases or risk factors, your provider may be more likely to start medicines at the same time as lifestyle changes.

If your blood pressure is higher than 140/90 mm Hg, you have Stage 2 high blood pressure. Your provider will most likely start you on medicines and recommend lifestyle changes.

Most of the time, high blood pressure does not cause symptoms.

Considerations

adam.com”>It is normal for your blood pressure to vary at different times of the day:

• It is usually higher when you are at work.
• It drops slightly when you are at home.
• It is usually lowest when you are sleeping.
• It is normal for your blood pressure to increase suddenly when you wake up. In people with very high blood pressure, this is when they are most at risk for a heart attack and stroke.

Blood pressure readings taken at home may be a better measure of your current blood pressure than those taken at your provider’s office.

• Make sure your home blood pressure monitor is accurate.
• Ask your provider to compare your home readings with those taken in the office.

Many people get nervous at the provider’s office and have higher readings than they have at home. This is called white coat hypertension. Home blood pressure readings can help detect this problem.

References

American Diabetes Association. 9. Cardiovascular disease and risk management: standards of medical care in diabetes – 2018. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(Suppl 1):S86-S104. PMID: 29222380 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29222380.

American Diabetes Association. 10. Cardiovascular disease and risk management: standards of medical care in diabetes – 2018. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(Suppl 1):S103-S123. PMID: 30559236 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30559236.

Ball JW, Dains JE, Flynn JA, Solomon BS, Stewart RW. Examination techniques and equipment. In: Ball JW, Dains JE, Flynn JA, Solomon BS, Stewart RW, eds. Seidel’s Guide to Physical Examination. 9th ed. St Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2019:chap 3.

James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-520. PMID: 24352797 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797.

Victor RG. Systemic hypertension: mechanisms and diagnosis. In: Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Mann DL, Tomaselli GF, Braunwald E, eds. Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019:chap 46.

Victor RG, Libby P. Systemic hypertension: management. In: Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Mann DL, Tomaselli GF, Braunwald E, eds. Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019:chap 47.

Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(19):e127-e248. PMID: 29146535 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535.

Measure Accurately | Target:BP

Accurate measurement of BP is essential both to estimating CVD risk and to guiding management of high BP. Avoiding common errors can lead to correct diagnoses and speed time to treatment, improving BP control rates.

New In-Office BP Thresholds Will Have an Impact on How You Diagnose

Statistically, this means more Americans will have high blood pressure. That doesn’t mean they face dramatic new risks or need to immediately start taking medication, but it is an opportunity to prevent problems by gaining awareness and taking action earlier.

“Over 50 percent of deaths from heart disease and stroke occurred among individuals with high blood pressure.”

To Eliminate Inaccurate Readings, Position Your Patient Properly

Common positioning problems can lead to inaccurate BP measurement can have a serious impact on the numbers you use to diagnose and determine treatment. These evidence-based tips can help ensure correct positioning in the clinical setting:

Patient Has…	Reading May Be Off By…*	Adjustment to Make
Crossed legs	2-8 mm Hg	Ask patient to uncross legs
Cuff over clothing	5-50 mm Hg	Place cuff over bare arm
Cuff too small	2-10 mm Hg	Ensure cuff fits properly. If an upper arm cuff does not fit the patient due to arm size, use a wrist cuff
Full bladder	10 mm Hg	Suggest patient use restroom
Talking or active listening	10 mm Hg	Ask for silence and stillness before beginning the measurement and to the last duration of measurement
Unsupported arm	10 mm Hg	Position patient with arm supported, cuff at heart level
Unsupported back/feet	6 mm Hg	Make sure patient is not on the exam table, but seated in a chair with back supported, feet flat on the ground or on a footstool

*These values are not cumulative

Accurate BP Measurement Matters

Learn more about the Achieving Accuracy: BP Measurement e-module that provides re-training on proper BP measurement techniques for medical professionals.

Learn More

Practice Assessment: How Well Do You Measure?

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Do you…

Have a nurse or medical assistant take a patient’s BP?
Use a validated, automated upper-arm device to measure BP?
Measure BP in an environment that supports appropriate patient positioning (e.g., quiet, chairs with back support, hard surface to support arm at heart level, foot stool available)?
Properly prepare patients before taking a BP measurement (e.g., advise to avoid tobacco and caffeine within 30 minutes, ensure patients have empty bladder, position patient properly)?
Take a repeat or “confirmatory” measurement if initial BP is high?

Taking Accurate BP Measurements is a Critical First Step

To align with evidence-based protocols, always take care to:

Prepare Your Patient

• Ask your patient to avoid caffeine, exercise, and smoking for at least 30 minutes
• Ask your patient to empty bladder
• Have your patient relax in a chair (feet on floor, back supported) for >5 min. Do not take BP readings while your patient is sitting or lying on an examining table
• Instruct your patient not to talk during the rest period or the measurement
• Ask your patient to bare the arm where you will place the cuff

Use Proper Technique

• Use a validated, calibrated measurement device
• Be sure the patient’s arm is supported on a surface at the correct height
• Place the middle of the cuff on the patient’s upper arm
• Use the correct cuff size. The bladder should go around 80% of the arm. Make a note if an unusual cuff size is needed
• Use either the stethoscope diaphragm or bell for auscultatory readings

Take The Measurements You Need to Diagnose and Treat

• At the first visit, take readings from both arms. Take subsequent readings from the arm that gave the higher reading
• Separate repeated measurements by 1–2 minutes
• If you use the auscultation method, prefer a palpated estimate of radial pulse obliteration pressure to estimate SBP. Inflate the cuff 20–30 mm Hg above this level to determine BP
• If you use the auscultation method, deflate the cuff pressure 2 mm Hg per/s and listen for Korotkoff sounds

Document Your BP Readings

• Record both SBP and DBP. If using the auscultatory technique, record SBP and DBP as onset of the first Korotkoff sound and disappearance of all Korotkoff sounds, respectively, using the nearest even number.
• Note how much time had passed between BP medication having been taken and time of measurement

Average the Patient’s BP Readings

• Use an average based on ≥2 readings obtained on ≥2 occasions to estimate your patient’s BP

Give BP Readings to Patient

• Give patients both their SBP and their DBP readings, verbally and in writing

Help Patients Minimize Known Risk Factors

• Encourage patient to stop smoking cigarettes
• Control diabetes mellitus if present
• Control dyslipidemia or hypercholesterolemia
• Counsel overweight or obese patients to reduce weight
• Encourage patient who is inactive to begin regular exercise
• Promote a healthy diet

Minimizing these risk factors may help patients reduce CVD risk.

Diagnose and Evaluate Your Patient

It is reasonable to screen using automated office blood pressure (AOBP) and confirm using ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) or SMBP before making your diagnosis. Depending on the measurements taken, categorize your patient as:

• White coat hypertension
• Sustained hypertension
• Masked hypertension

—and take action.

Up Next: Act Rapidly

Featured Resources

Use these resources to follow current best practices and improve outcomes.

Measure Accurately Quick Start Guide

To help you measure BP accurately, use this resource to understand what tools are available to you for the three key phases to make impactful change.

Accurate BP Measurement Matters

E-module that provides re-training on proper BP measurement techniques for medical professionals.

Identify Positioning Errors

There’s a more accurate way to measure a patient’s BP. Can you identify the common errors?

Measuring BP

See the critical steps for measuring BP accurately—and the potential impact of mismeasurement.

Technique Quick-Check

Help ensure that everyone in your practice takes BP readings the right way—and the same way—every time.

See All Tools & Downloads

How to find the Volume of a Parallelepiped?

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In the 5th grade, students get acquainted with three-dimensional figures. Take a look around – the world consists of parallelepipeds. So in any incomprehensible situation, just look for their volume. Let’s learn how to do it. In the article you will find all the necessary formulas and rules.

The concept of volume

To easily calculate the volume of any figure, you need to understand the definitions.

Volume is a quantitative characteristic of the space occupied by a body or substance.

In other words, this is how much space an item takes up.

Volume is measured in units of measurement of the size of the space occupied by the body, that is, in cubic meters, cubic centimeters, cubic millimeters.

A cube with an edge of 1 cm can be taken as a unit of measurement of volume, that is, a cubic centimeter (cm ³ ), a cubic millimeter (1 mm ³ ), cubic meter (1 m ³ ).

The volume is always expressed in positive numbers. This number shows exactly how many units of measurement there are in the body. For example, how much water is in the pool, how much juice is in the decanter, how much land is in the flower bed.

Any three-dimensional body has a volume. It turns out that, if desired, we can calculate the volume of a mug, a smartphone, a vase, a cat – anything.

Solve your math homework for 5.

Detailed solutions will help you understand the most difficult topic.

Volume of cuboid

Cuboid is a polyhedron with six faces, each of which is a parallelogram.

A cuboid is a cuboid in which all faces are rectangles.

In order not to get confused in the formulas, remember the legend plate.

Example 1. What is the volume of a parallelepiped with sides 9cm, 6 cm, 3 cm. 0023 3 .

Answer: the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is 162 cm ³ .

From this corollary we derive a formula for finding the area of ​​the base of the parallelepiped.

S _base = V : h

039

V = 96 cm ³

h = 8 cm

V = S _main × h

S _main = V : h

S _main = 82 cm ³ : 8 cm = 12 cm ² .

Answer: the area of ​​the base of the parallelepiped is 12 cm ² .

Math courses at the Skysmart online school will help you quickly understand the topic and solve problems correctly!

Calculation of the area

As you have already understood, the calculation of the volume of a parallelepiped directly depends on the calculation of its area. Let’s figure out how many areas can be found in a parallelepiped.

To find the area of ​​the side surface of a box, calculate the area of ​​each side face separately, and then find the sum of the resulting values.

Since the opposite faces of the cuboid are the same, we get the formula:

• S _{b. p.} = 2 (ac + bc)

To calculate the total surface area of ​​a box, add the side surface area and the two base areas. Since the areas of the bases of a rectangular parallelepiped are the same, we get the formula:

• S _p.p.

Example 3. Find the surface area of ​​a parallelepiped if the length of the base is 6 centimeters, the width is 4 cm, and the height is 3 cm.

S _{p.p. S p.p. = 2 (6 × 4 + 6 × 3 + 4 × 3) = 2 × (24 + 18 + 12) = 2 × 54 = 108 cm ² .}

Answer: the surface area of ​​the parallelepiped is 108 cm ² .

As you can see, it is not difficult to calculate the volume and find the area of ​​a parallelepiped.

Self-test tasks

You can use online calculators when you have already practiced solving problems and with your eyes closed you can calculate the volume of any parallelepiped. Let’s look at a few more examples.

Problem 1. Find the volume of a parallelepiped with sides 18 cm, 10 cm, 7 cm. 012 h = 7 cm

Volume formula box:

V = a × b × h

Substitute our numbers:

V = 18 × 10 × 7 = 1260 cm ³ .

Answer: the volume of the parallelepiped is 1260 cm ³ .

Problem 2. Find the area of ​​the base of the parallelepiped if its volume is 120 cm ³ and its height is 15 cm.

h = 15 cm

V = S _main × h

S _main = V : h

S _main = 120 cm ³ : 15 cm = 8 cm ² .

Answer: the base area of ​​the parallelepiped is 8 cm ² .

Problem 3. Find the total surface area of ​​a rectangular parallelepiped if the length of the base is 30 centimeters, the width is 12 cm, and the height is 5 cm. + ac + bc)

S _p.p. = 2 (30 × 12 + 30 × 5 + 12 × 5) = 2 × (360 + 150 + 60) = 2 × 570 = 1140 cm ² .

Answer: the total surface area of ​​the parallelepiped is 1140 cm ² .

Keep all the necessary formulas at hand at the right time. Save the cheat sheet on your gadget or print it out and keep it in your textbook.

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Borisov B.P. Measurement of non-linear characteristics of equipment elements and long-distance communication paths

1. Files
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   Communications and telecommunications
4. Multichannel telecommunication systems

Communications and telecommunications

• Fiber optic transmission systems

• History of communications and telecommunications

• Mathematical methods and modeling in communications and telecommunications

• Multichannel telecommunication systems

• Mobile communications

• Telecommunication guide systems

• Communications and telecommunications periodicals

• Radio communication

• Communication networks and switching systems

• Satellite communications

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M.: Communication, 1969. -58 p.
New in communication technology
Brochure provides an overview and classification of existing measurement methods
transfer characteristics and non-linear distortions by materials
domestic and foreign press. The ways of forming
test signal and its influence on measurement accuracy. Described
some methods of protection of selective meters from overload.
A comparative assessment of methods for measuring transmission
characteristics and non-linear distortions. Recommendations are given for
application of the most appropriate methods for measuring non-linear
characteristics of equipment and long-distance communication paths.
This brochure is intended for communication engineers.

See also

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A group of authors of the department led by Andreev VA Measuring the circuits of electric communication cables with direct current PGATI, Samara, 2005 Purpose and order of work, a brief theory and control questions.

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Title: Handbook on radio relay communication. Author: edited by Borodich SV Format: DJVU. Size: 7.8 Mb. Good quality. Russian language. Genre: Communication. Publisher: Radio and communication. Pages: 211. Year of publication: 1981. Description: This handbook contains information about the general principles of building radio-relay communication systems and equipment, current standards for the quality indicators of RRL channels and paths, methods for calculating noise in RRL channels and calculating . ..

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  January 17, 2009

The book discusses the basic principles of building digital and analog multichannel transmission systems. The features of the implementation of the functional units of the transmission equipment and the specifics of signal conversions in them are outlined. Describes the design and operation procedures for transmission system equipment. For university students specializing in Telecommunication Systems, Multichannel Transmission Systems, Optical Transmission and Processing Systems…

Course work

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Course project on the discipline “Multichannel transmission systems Checking calculations of channels; Selection of cable, line type and sealing systems; Technical characteristics of sealing equipment; Scheme of the passage of circuits along the linear hardware shop and equipment layout plan; Communication diagram on the railway section; Brief estimate financial calculation Safety precautions during the construction of cable lines and installation of equipment

Course work

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Course project of the railway university, spec. Automation, telemechanics and communications. Channel checks. Choice of cable, line type and sealing systems. Technical characteristics of the sealing equipment. Scheme of the passage of circuits in a linear hardware shop. and equipment layout plan. Scheme of communication on the railway section. Brief financial statement. Safety precautions in the construction of cable lines. and installation of equipment.

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  January 18, 2009

Principles for constructing SMEs with FDM. Principles of construction of equipment for multi-channel communication with VRC. Electrical characteristics of the PM channel. differential systems. Terminal equipment of the K-60P transmission system. coding devices. CSP regenerator. Unattended regeneration station NRP-K12 of the IKM-30 transmission system.

Workshop

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Minsk: BSUIR, 2002. – 35 p. Laboratory workshop on the disciplines “Guiding systems of telecommunications” and “Guiding systems and passive components” for students of specialties 45 01 01 “Multichannel telecommunications systems”, 45 01 02 “Radio communication, broadcasting and television” List of laboratory works: Determination of the nature of damage to the communication line and distance before it with a pulse device P5-5. Investigation of inhomogeneities of communication lines…

Workshop

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  October 08, 2011

Minsk: BSUIR, 2005. – 30 p. ISBN 985-444-886?X Laboratory workshop on the disciplines “Guiding systems of telecommunications” and “Guiding systems and passive components” for students of specialties ??45 01 01 “Multichannel telecommunication systems”, ?? “, ??45 01 03 “Networks and telecommunication devices”. The lab combines two labs related to attenuation measurements…

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  October 23, 2011

Minsk: BSUIR, 2007. – 213 p. Contents: Basic principles of building radio transmission systems. The structure of a multi-channel one-way RPN. Structural diagram of a duplex single-barrel RSP. Structure and principle of operation of a multi-barrel transmission.