What are the most commonly known chemical weapons agents. How do these agents affect the human body. What are the symptoms of exposure to various chemical weapons. How can exposure to chemical weapons be treated. What precautions should be taken to protect against chemical weapons.

Chlorine: The First Effective Chemical Weapon

Chlorine holds a notorious place in history as the first chemical weapon used effectively in warfare, making its debut during World War I. While it serves a beneficial purpose in public water systems by killing bacteria, in high concentrations it becomes a deadly weapon.

What does chlorine look like as a chemical weapon? It appears as a green-yellow gas with a distinct bleach-like odor. This seemingly innocuous substance can cause severe damage to the human body when weaponized.

Effects of Chlorine Exposure

Chlorine acts primarily as a choking agent, targeting the respiratory system. The symptoms of chlorine poisoning include:

• Runny nose
• Coughing and choking
• Chest pain
• Irritation of eyes, nose, and respiratory tract

How quickly does chlorine affect the body? While initial symptoms appear rapidly, the most severe effects may not manifest for several hours. Fluid buildup in the lungs typically occurs hours after exposure, potentially leading to pneumonia.

Cyanide: A Swift and Deadly Agent

Cyanide, another infamous chemical weapon, exists in two primary forms: hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride. As a gas, cyanide is colorless and emits a bitter almond scent, making it difficult to detect without specialized equipment.

Cyanide’s Mechanism of Action

How does cyanide affect the human body? Cyanide’s primary mechanism of action involves interfering with the body’s ability to use oxygen. This disruption can lead to rapid cell death and organ failure.

Are there differences between the two types of cyanide? Indeed, cyanogen chloride has additional effects beyond those of hydrogen cyanide:

• Strong irritation of eyes and respiratory tract
• Pronounced choking effects

Can cyanide be absorbed through the skin? Yes, liquid forms of cyanide can cause burns to both skin and eyes upon contact.

Treatment for Cyanide Poisoning

Is cyanide poisoning treatable? Fortunately, there are antidotes available for cyanide poisoning. Current treatments include:

• Sodium thiosulfate
• Hydroxocobalamin

In some areas, an older treatment protocol is still employed, consisting of:

1. Inhaled amyl nitrate
2. Intravenous sodium nitrite
3. Intravenous sodium thiosulfate

Lewisite: The Geranium-Scented Threat

Lewisite, an oily substance with a distinctive geranium-like odor, represents another category of chemical weapons known as blister agents. Its appearance ranges from amber to dark brown in color.

Lewisite’s Multifaceted Danger

What makes Lewisite particularly dangerous? Lewisite poses a triple threat to the human body:

• Acts as a blister agent, causing severe skin damage
• Toxic to the lungs when inhaled
• Systemic poison affecting the entire body

How quickly can Lewisite kill? In high concentrations, Lewisite can be lethal in as little as 10 minutes when inhaled.

Environmental Factors and Treatment

Does humidity affect Lewisite’s effectiveness? Yes, Lewisite becomes less effective in humid conditions, though its vapor form remains equally dangerous.

Is there an antidote for Lewisite poisoning? Dimercaprol serves as an effective antidote if administered early after inhalation.

Mustard Agents: Notorious Blister-Causing Weapons

Mustard agents, the most widely known and common blister agents, inflict severe and long-lasting damage to the human body. Their effects are particularly insidious due to the delayed onset of symptoms.

Comprehensive Effects of Mustard Agents

How do mustard agents affect the body? Mustard agents cause widespread damage, including:

• Severe blistering of the skin
• Damage to eyes and airways
• Gastrointestinal tract injury (after high dose absorption)
• Bone marrow suppression, affecting immune system cell production

Why are mustard agent injuries so problematic? Injuries caused by mustard agents heal much more slowly than other chemical burns and are more susceptible to infection.

Treatment and Decontamination

Is there an antidote for mustard poisoning? Unfortunately, no specific antidote exists for mustard poisoning. However, immediate decontamination and supportive care are crucial:

• Flush eyes immediately with water
• Decontaminate skin with bleach
• Administer oxygen if mustard was inhaled

Phosgene: The Deceptive Fog

Phosgene, another choking agent, initially appears as a fog before becoming colorless as it disperses. Its scent has been described as similar to newly mown hay, but with a poisonous, suffocating undertone.

Delayed but Devastating Effects

What makes phosgene particularly dangerous? The delayed onset of its most severe effects:

• Fluid buildup in the lungs can occur up to 48 hours after exposure
• Potential for irreversible lung damage, including emphysema and fibrosis

Does phosgene only affect the lungs? No, phosgene can also cause:

• Severe damage to the nose and throat
• Burns to skin and eyes upon contact

Emergency Response to Phosgene Exposure

How should phosgene exposure be treated? Immediate actions include:

• Administering oxygen to support breathing
• Flushing eyes with water or saline solution
• Monitoring for delayed pulmonary effects

Nerve Agents: Sarin, Soman, and Tabun

Nerve agents represent some of the most lethal chemical weapons ever developed. Sarin, Soman, and Tabun share many characteristics and effects, but each has unique properties.

Common Characteristics of Nerve Agents

What physical properties do these nerve agents share?

• Clear and colorless appearance
• Typically odorless or with very faint odors
• Can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested

How quickly do nerve agents act? In vapor form, nerve agents act very rapidly. In liquid form, the onset of effects may be somewhat delayed.

Symptoms and Effects of Nerve Agent Exposure

What symptoms indicate nerve agent poisoning? Common symptoms include:

• Runny nose and tightness of chest
• Dimmed vision and breathing difficulties
• Excessive salivation and sweating
• Nausea, vomiting, and involuntary bodily functions
• Involuntary muscle movements
• Headache, confusion, and drowsiness

What happens if nerve agent poisoning is left untreated? Without prompt treatment, victims may stop breathing and die.

Treatment for Nerve Agent Exposure

Are there antidotes for nerve agent poisoning? Yes, several antidotes exist:

• Atropine
• Pralidoxime
• Pyridostigmine (for pretreatment)
• Benzodiazepines (for seizure control)

What immediate actions should be taken after nerve agent exposure? Decontamination is crucial:

• Thoroughly flush eyes and skin if exposed
• Remove and safely dispose of contaminated clothing
• Seek immediate medical attention

VX: The Most Potent of Nerve Agents

VX stands out among nerve agents for its extreme toxicity and persistence in the environment. Unlike other nerve agents, VX is less volatile, making it primarily a contact hazard rather than an inhalation threat.

Unique Properties of VX

How does VX differ from other nerve agents?

• Appears as an amber-colored, oily liquid
• Odorless and tasteless
• Extremely persistent in the environment, lasting for days or weeks
• Most toxic of all known chemical warfare agents

Why is VX considered so dangerous? Its high toxicity means that even minute amounts can be lethal, and its persistence increases the risk of secondary contamination.

Effects and Treatment of VX Exposure

What are the symptoms of VX poisoning? Symptoms are similar to other nerve agents but may occur more rapidly and severely:

• Pupil constriction and blurred vision
• Excessive salivation and sweating
• Muscle twitching and seizures
• Respiratory failure

How is VX poisoning treated? Treatment follows similar protocols to other nerve agents:

• Immediate decontamination
• Administration of atropine and pralidoxime
• Supportive care, including respiratory support

Protecting Against Chemical Weapons: Prevention and Preparedness

Given the devastating effects of chemical weapons, prevention and preparedness are crucial for both military personnel and civilian populations potentially at risk.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

What types of PPE are effective against chemical weapons?

• Full-face respirators with appropriate filters
• Chemical-resistant suits
• Impermeable gloves and boots

How important is proper training in the use of PPE? Proper training is essential, as incorrect use of PPE can lead to exposure despite the equipment.

Detection and Warning Systems

What technologies are used to detect chemical weapons?

• Portable chemical agent detectors
• Fixed-site monitoring systems
• Remote sensing technologies

How can early warning systems help mitigate the effects of a chemical attack? Early detection allows for rapid implementation of protective measures and evacuation procedures, potentially saving many lives.

International Efforts to Control Chemical Weapons

What international agreements govern chemical weapons? The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is the primary international agreement prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer, or use of chemical weapons.

How effective have international efforts been in controlling chemical weapons? While significant progress has been made in destroying declared stockpiles, challenges remain in ensuring complete global compliance and preventing the development of new chemical agents.

The Future of Chemical Weapons: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures

As technology advances, the landscape of chemical weapons and defenses against them continues to evolve. Understanding these emerging trends is crucial for maintaining effective protection and response strategies.

Novel Chemical Agents

Are new chemical weapons being developed? While international agreements prohibit such development, there are concerns about the potential creation of novel agents designed to circumvent existing detection and protection methods.

What challenges do novel agents pose? They may require new detection technologies, protective equipment, and medical countermeasures, potentially rendering existing defenses less effective.

Advancements in Medical Countermeasures

How are treatments for chemical weapons exposure evolving? Research continues into more effective antidotes and supportive therapies, including:

• Broad-spectrum antidotes effective against multiple agents
• Nanoparticle-based therapies for rapid detoxification
• Gene therapy approaches to enhance natural defenses

What role does personalized medicine play in chemical weapons treatment? Advances in genomics and pharmacogenomics may lead to more tailored and effective treatments based on individual genetic profiles.

Improved Detection and Protection Technologies

How are detection technologies improving? Emerging technologies include:

• Miniaturized, highly sensitive sensors
• Artificial intelligence-powered detection systems
• Standoff detection methods for safer, remote sensing

What advancements are being made in protective equipment? New materials and designs are focusing on:

• Increased comfort and usability for extended wear
• Self-decontaminating fabrics
• Integration of real-time monitoring and communication systems

Psychological Impact of Chemical Weapons: Beyond Physical Harm

The effects of chemical weapons extend far beyond immediate physical damage, often leaving lasting psychological scars on survivors and communities.

Acute Psychological Effects

What immediate psychological impacts can chemical weapons attacks have?

• Intense fear and panic
• Disorientation and confusion
• Acute stress reactions

How do these acute effects complicate emergency response? Panic and disorientation can hinder evacuation efforts and make it difficult for victims to follow safety instructions.

Long-term Mental Health Consequences

What long-term psychological issues may survivors face?

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Depression and anxiety disorders
• Survivor’s guilt
• Chronic fear and hypervigilance

How long can these psychological effects persist? In some cases, survivors may experience symptoms for years or even decades after the event.

Community and Social Impact

How do chemical weapons attacks affect communities as a whole?

• Erosion of trust in public safety and government institutions
• Long-term economic impacts due to fear and stigma
• Intergenerational trauma passed down to children of survivors

Commonly Known Chemical Weapons Agents

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

• Chlorine
• Cyanide
• Lewisite
• Mustard
• Phosgene
• Sarin
• Soman
• Tabun
• VX
• More

• Description. The same chemical that kills bacteria in public water systems can be a weapon in high concentrations. Chlorine was the first chemical weapon used effectively in war — in World War I. It is green-yellow in color and smells like bleach.
• Effects. It is a choking agent that irritates the eyes, nose, and respiratory tract. Symptoms of chlorine poisoning appear as runny nose, coughing, choking, and chest pain. Fluid buildup in the lungs occurs several hours after exposure. Pneumonia can follow.

• Description. As a gas, cyanide is colorless and has a bitter almond smell. There are two kinds of cyanide, hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride (cyanogen chloride turns into hydrogen cyanide inside the body).
• Effects. Cyanide interferes with the use of oxygen in the body. But cyanogen chloride has strong irritating and choking effects on the eyes and respiratory tract, unlike hydrogen cyanide. Liquid forms of cyanide will burn skin and eyes. Cyanide acts quickly, but only large amounts are deadly. Cyanide poisoning can be treated with sodium thiosulfate and hydroxocobalamin. Older treatment consisting of inhaled amyl nitrate, or intravenous sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate is still used in some areas.

• Description. As a weapon, liquid Lewisite smells like a geranium and is amber to dark brown in color. The oily substance that causes blisters (a blister agent) but also can be toxic to the lungs and poison to the whole body.
• Effects. When inhaled in high concentrations, it can kill in as little as 10 minutes. The vapor form of Lewisite is just as dangerous, but the chemical is less effective in humid conditions. Lewisite poisoning can be treated with an antidote known as dimercarprol, if it is administered early after inhalation.

• Description. Mustard agents are the most widely known of the blister agents and the most common. They produce injuries that heal much more slowly and are more susceptible to infection than other chemical burns.
• Effects. Mustard also damages eyes and airways after contact, and the gastrointestinal tract and bone marrow (where immune system cells are produced) after high doses are absorbed. Its effects are delayed, though, because it causes no pain on contact. There is no antidote to mustard poisoning. Victims’ eyes should be flushed with water immediately; bleach can decontaminate skin; and oxygen should be given if mustard was inhaled.

• Description. When it is first dispersed, phosgene looks like a fog, but it becomes colorless as it spreads, although it doesn’t last long. It can smell like newly mown hay but with a poisonous, suffocating odor.
• Effects. As a choking agent, phosgene causes fluid buildup in the lungs — but not until as many as 48 hours after exposure. Inhalation can lead to irreversible lung damage like emphysema and fibrosis (scarring). Phosgene causes severe damage to nose and throat, and can burn skin and eyes. Victims should be given oxygen and have their eyes flushed with water or saline.

• Description. Sarin is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It’s a highly volatile chemical and is mainly an inhalation threat.
• Effects. Symptoms of sarin poisoning include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary bowel movement and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. Soman is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless and tasteless, and can have a slight camphor odor or none at all. It can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested orally. Nerve agents act very quickly in vapor form; longer in liquid form.
• Effects. Symptoms include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary defecation and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and pyridostigmine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. Tabun is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless, tasteless, and can have a slight fruity odor or none at all. It can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested. Nerve agents act very quickly in vapor form; longer in liquid form.
• Effects. Symptoms include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary bowel movement and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine chloride, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. The nerve agent VX is an oily liquid that is clear, odorless, and tasteless, and looks similar to motor oil. Effects of VX poisoning may occur within minutes or hours depending on how much a victim was exposed to.
• Effects. Symptoms include visual problems, headache, runny nose and nasal congestion, salivation, tightness of chest, nausea and vomiting, anxiety, confusion, involuntary muscle movements, and involuntary bowel movement and urination. Severe exposure can lead to convulsions and respiratory failure. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

Top Picks

Commonly Known Chemical Weapons Agents

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

• Chlorine
• Cyanide
• Lewisite
• Mustard
• Phosgene
• Sarin
• Soman
• Tabun
• VX
• More

• Description. The same chemical that kills bacteria in public water systems can be a weapon in high concentrations. Chlorine was the first chemical weapon used effectively in war — in World War I. It is green-yellow in color and smells like bleach.
• Effects. It is a choking agent that irritates the eyes, nose, and respiratory tract. Symptoms of chlorine poisoning appear as runny nose, coughing, choking, and chest pain. Fluid buildup in the lungs occurs several hours after exposure. Pneumonia can follow.

• Description. As a gas, cyanide is colorless and has a bitter almond smell. There are two kinds of cyanide, hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride (cyanogen chloride turns into hydrogen cyanide inside the body).
• Effects. Cyanide interferes with the use of oxygen in the body. But cyanogen chloride has strong irritating and choking effects on the eyes and respiratory tract, unlike hydrogen cyanide. Liquid forms of cyanide will burn skin and eyes. Cyanide acts quickly, but only large amounts are deadly. Cyanide poisoning can be treated with sodium thiosulfate and hydroxocobalamin. Older treatment consisting of inhaled amyl nitrate, or intravenous sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate is still used in some areas.

• Description. As a weapon, liquid Lewisite smells like a geranium and is amber to dark brown in color. The oily substance that causes blisters (a blister agent) but also can be toxic to the lungs and poison to the whole body.
• Effects. When inhaled in high concentrations, it can kill in as little as 10 minutes. The vapor form of Lewisite is just as dangerous, but the chemical is less effective in humid conditions. Lewisite poisoning can be treated with an antidote known as dimercarprol, if it is administered early after inhalation.

• Description. Mustard agents are the most widely known of the blister agents and the most common. They produce injuries that heal much more slowly and are more susceptible to infection than other chemical burns.
• Effects. Mustard also damages eyes and airways after contact, and the gastrointestinal tract and bone marrow (where immune system cells are produced) after high doses are absorbed. Its effects are delayed, though, because it causes no pain on contact. There is no antidote to mustard poisoning. Victims’ eyes should be flushed with water immediately; bleach can decontaminate skin; and oxygen should be given if mustard was inhaled.

• Description. When it is first dispersed, phosgene looks like a fog, but it becomes colorless as it spreads, although it doesn’t last long. It can smell like newly mown hay but with a poisonous, suffocating odor.
• Effects. As a choking agent, phosgene causes fluid buildup in the lungs — but not until as many as 48 hours after exposure. Inhalation can lead to irreversible lung damage like emphysema and fibrosis (scarring). Phosgene causes severe damage to nose and throat, and can burn skin and eyes. Victims should be given oxygen and have their eyes flushed with water or saline.

• Description. Sarin is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It’s a highly volatile chemical and is mainly an inhalation threat.
• Effects. Symptoms of sarin poisoning include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary bowel movement and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. Soman is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless and tasteless, and can have a slight camphor odor or none at all. It can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested orally. Nerve agents act very quickly in vapor form; longer in liquid form.
• Effects. Symptoms include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary defecation and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and pyridostigmine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. Tabun is a nerve agent that is clear, colorless, tasteless, and can have a slight fruity odor or none at all. It can be inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested. Nerve agents act very quickly in vapor form; longer in liquid form.
• Effects. Symptoms include runny nose, tightness of chest, dimmed vision, breathing difficulty, drooling, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, involuntary bowel movement and urination, involuntary muscle movements, headache, confusion, and drowsiness. If untreated, victims stop breathing and die. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine chloride, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

• Description. The nerve agent VX is an oily liquid that is clear, odorless, and tasteless, and looks similar to motor oil. Effects of VX poisoning may occur within minutes or hours depending on how much a victim was exposed to.
• Effects. Symptoms include visual problems, headache, runny nose and nasal congestion, salivation, tightness of chest, nausea and vomiting, anxiety, confusion, involuntary muscle movements, and involuntary bowel movement and urination. Severe exposure can lead to convulsions and respiratory failure. Antidotes are atropine, pralidoxmine, and a benzodiazepine. Eyes and skin should be flushed thoroughly if exposed.

Top Picks

List 1 | OPCW

A.

Toxic chemicals:

		(Registration CAS number)
1)	O-alkyl (£C10, including cycloalkyl) alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-fluorophosphonates, e.g. Sarin: O-isopropylmethylfluorophosphonate	(107-44-8)
	soman: O-pinacolylmethylfluorophosphonate	(96-64-0)
2)	O-alkyl (£C10 including cycloalkyl)-N,N-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-amidocyanphosphates, e.g. tabun: O-ethyl-N,N-dimethylamidocyanphosphate	(77-81-6)
3)	O-alkyl (H or £C10, including cycloalkyl)-S-2-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-aminoethylalkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) thiophosphonates and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts, e.g. VX: O-ethyl-S-2-diisopropylaminoethylmethyl -thiophosphonate	(50782-69-9)
4)	Sulfur mustards:
	2-chloroethylchloromethyl sulfide	(2625-76-5)
	mustard gas: bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide	(505-60-2)
	bis(2-chloroethylthio)methane	(63869-13-6)
	sesquiprite: 1,2-bis(2-chloroethylthio)ethane	(3563-36-8)
	1,3-bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-propane	(63905-10-2)
	1,4-bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-butane	(142868-93-7)
	1,5-bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-pentane	(142868-94-8)
	bis(2-chloroethylthiomethyl)ether	(63918-90-1)
	O-yperite: bis(2-chloroethylthioethyl)ether	(63918-89-8)
5)	Lewisites
	Lewisite 1: 2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine	(541-25-3)
	Lewisite 2: bis(2-chlorovinyl)chlorarsine	(40334-69-8)
	Lewisite 3: tri(2-chlorovinyl)arsine	(40334-70-1)
6)	Nitrous mustards
	HN1: bis(2-chloroethyl)ethylamine	(538-07-8)
	HN2: bis(2-chloroethyl)methylamine	(51-75-2)
	HN3: tri(2-chloroethyl)amine	(555-77-1)
7)	Saxitoxin	(35523-89-8)
8)	Ricin	(9009-86-3)
13)	P-alkyl (H or ≤C10, including cycloalkyl) N-(1-(dialkyl(≤C10, including cycloalkyl)amino))alkylidene(H or ≤C10, including cycloalkyl) amidofluorophosphonates and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts,
	e. g. N-(1-(di-n-decylamino)-n-decylidene)-P-decylamidofluorophosphonate	(2387495-99-8)
	methyl-(1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)amidofluorophosphonate	(2387496-12-8)
14)	O-alkyl (H or ≤C10, including cycloalkyl) N-(1-(dialkyl(≤C10, including cycloalkyl)amino))alkylidene(H or ≤C10, including cycloalkyl) amidofluorophosphates and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts
`	e.g. O-n-decyl N-(1-(di-n-decylamino)-n-decylidene)amidofluorophosphate	(2387496-00-4)
	methyl (1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)amidofluorophosphate	(2387496-04-8)
	ethyl (1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)amidofluorophosphate	(2387496-06-0)
15)	Methyl-(bis(diethylamino)methylene)phosphonamidofluoridate	(2387496-14-0)
16)	Carbamates (quaternary and bisquaternary dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines)
	Quaternary dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines:
	1-[N,N-dialkyl(≤C10)-N-(n-(hydroxyl, cyano, acetoxy)alkyl(≤C10)) ammonio]-n-[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolinyl)- N,N-dialkyl(≤C10) ammonio]decane dibromide (n=1-8),
	e. g. 1-[N,N-dimethyl-N-(2-hydroxy)ethylammonio]-10-[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolinyl)-N,N-dimethylammonio]decanedibromide	(77104-62-2)
	Bisquaternary dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines:
	1,n-bis[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolyl)-N,N-dialkyl(≤C10) ammonio]-alkane-(2,(n-1)-dione) dibromide (n=2- 12)
	e.g. 1,10-bis[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolyl)-N-ethyl-N-methylammonio]decane-2,9-dionedibromide	(77104-00-8)

B. Precursors:

The largest use of chemical weapons in history – RBC

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On April 7, the United States launched a missile attack on the Syrian Shayrat airbase in Homs province. The operation was a response to the chemical attack in Idlib on April 4, for which Washington and Western countries blame Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Official Damascus denies its involvement in the attack.

The chemical attack killed more than 70 people and injured more than 500. This is not the first such attack in Syria and not the first in history. The largest cases of the use of chemical weapons are in the RBC photo gallery.

Photo: Scherl / Global Look Press

One of the first major use of chemical warfare agents occurred on April 22, 1915 when German troops sprayed about 168 tons of chlorine on positions near the Belgian city of Ypres. The victims of this attack were 1100 people. In total, during the First World War, as a result of the use of chemical weapons, about 100 thousand people died, 1. 3 million were injured.

Pictured: a group of British soldiers blinded by chlorine

Photo: Daily Herald Archive / NMeM / Global Look Press

mustard gas was used in Ethiopia. The Italian military claimed that the substance used during the hostilities was not lethal, however, during the entire conflict, about 100 thousand people (military and civilians) who did not have even the simplest means of chemical protection died from poisonous substances.

Pictured: Red Cross soldiers carry the wounded across the Abyssinian desert

Photo: Mary Evans Picture Library / Global Look Press

During World War II, chemical weapons were practically not used on the fronts, but were widely used by the Nazis to exterminate people in concentration camps . A pesticide based on hydrocyanic acid called “cyclone-B” was first used against people in September 1941 in Auschwitz. For the first time, these lethal gas pellets were used September 3, 1941, victims were 600 Soviet prisoners of war and 250 Poles, the second time – 900 Soviet prisoners of war became victims. Hundreds of thousands of people died from the use of “cyclone-B” in Nazi concentration camps.

In the photo: cyclone-B pellets

Photo: AP

In November 1943, , the Imperial Japanese Army used chemical and bacteriological weapons against Chinese soldiers during the Battle of Changde. According to the testimony of witnesses, in addition to the poisonous gases of mustard gas and lewisite, fleas infected with bubonic plague were thrown into the area around the city. The exact number of victims of the use of toxic substances is unknown.

Pictured: Chinese military marching through the ruined streets of Changde

Photo: Richard Vogel / AP

chemicals, the most common of which was the chemical known as Agent Orange. The substance was produced using a simplified technology and contained high concentrations of dioxin, which causes genetic mutations and cancer. The Vietnamese Red Cross estimated that 3 million people were affected by the use of Agent Orange, including 150,000 children born with mutations.

Pictured: A 12-year-old boy suffering from the effects of Agent Orange

Photo: Chikumo Chiaki / AR

On March 20, 1995, members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult sprayed the nerve agent sarin on the Tokyo subway. As a result of the attack, 13 people were killed and another 6,000 were injured. Five members of the sect entered the carriages, lowered packages of volatile liquid onto the floor and pierced them with the tip of an umbrella, after which they left the train. According to experts, there could have been much more victims if the poisonous substance had been sprayed in other ways.

Pictured: Doctors treating passengers affected by sarin

Photo: Anja Niedringhaus / AR

In November 2004, US troops used white phosphorus munitions during the assault on the Iraqi city of Fallujah. Initially, the Pentagon denied the use of such ammunition, but eventually admitted this fact. The exact number of deaths from the use of white phosphorus in Fallujah is unknown.