Cholesterol: What causes high cholesterol?

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Our team thoroughly researches and evaluates the recommendations we make on our site. To establish that the product manufacturers addressed safety and efficacy standards, we:

• Evaluate ingredients and composition: Do they have the potential to cause harm?
• Fact-check all health claims: Do they align with the current body of scientific evidence?
• Assess the brand: Does it operate with integrity and adhere to industry best practices?

We do the research so you can find trusted products for your health and wellness.

Read more about our vetting process.

Was this helpful?

Cholesterol is an essential substance for the body. Dietary factors and some health conditions can lead to high cholesterol, which is a risk factor for several conditions.

Cholesterol is present in every cell of the body and has important natural functions when it comes to digesting foods, producing hormones, and generating vitamin D. The body produces it, but people also consume it in food. It is waxy and fat-like in appearance.

There are two types of cholesterol:

• low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol
• high-density lipoproteins (HDL), or “good” cholesterol

In this article, we will explain the role of cholesterol. We will also discuss the causes of high cholesterol, and its symptoms, treatment, and prevention.

Fast facts on cholesterol:

• Cholesterol is an essential substance that the body produces but which people also consume in foods.
• Risk factors for high cholesterol include family history and the modifiable lifestyle choices of diet and exercise.
• Having high cholesterol does not usually produce any symptoms.
• If lifestyle changes are unsuccessful or cholesterol levels are very high, a doctor may prescribe a lipid-lowering drug, such as a statin.

Was this helpful?

Cholesterol is an oil-based substance. It does not mix with the blood, which is water-based.

It travels around the body in lipoproteins.

Two types of lipoprotein carry the parcels of cholesterol:

• Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Cholesterol that travels in this way is unhealthful or “bad” cholesterol.
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL): Cholesterol that is present in HDL is known as “good” cholesterol.

Cholesterol has four primary functions, without which we could not survive.

These are:

• contributing to the structure of cell walls
• making up digestive bile acids in the intestine
• allowing the body to produce vitamin D
• enabling the body to make certain hormones

High cholesterol is a significant risk factor for coronary heart disease and a cause of heart attacks.

A build-up of cholesterol is part of the process that narrows arteries, called atherosclerosis. In atherosclerosis, plaques form and cause restriction of blood flow.

Reducing the intake of fat in the diet helps to manage cholesterol levels. In particular, it is helpful to limit foods that contain:

• Cholesterol: This is present in animal foods, meat, and cheese.
• Saturated fat: This occurs in some meats, dairy products, chocolate, baked goods, deep-fried, and processed foods.
• Trans fats: This occurs in some fried and processed foods.

Excess weight or obesity can also lead to higher blood LDL levels. Genetic factors can contribute to high cholesterol. People with the inherited condition familial hypercholesterolemia have very high LDL levels.

Other conditions that can lead to high cholesterol levels, include:

• diabetes
• liver or kidney disease
• polycystic ovary syndrome
• pregnancy and other conditions that increase levels of female hormones
• underactive thyroid gland
• drugs that increase LDL cholesterol and decrease HDL cholesterol, such as progestins, anabolic steroids, and corticosteroids

A person with high cholesterol levels often has no signs or symptoms, but routine screening and regular blood tests can help detect high levels.

A person who does not undergo testing may have a heart attack without warning, because they did not know that they had high cholesterol levels. Regular tests can help to reduce this risk.

A report from Harvard Health has identified 11 cholesterol-lowering foods that actively decrease cholesterol levels:

• oats
• barley and whole grains
• beans
• eggplant and okra
• nuts
• vegetable oil (canola, sunflower)
• fruits (mainly apples, grapes, strawberries, and citrus)
• soy and soy-based foods
• fatty fish (particularly salmon, tuna, and sardines)
• foods rich in fiber

Adding these to a balanced diet can help keep cholesterol in check.

The same report also lists foods that are bad for cholesterol levels. These include:

• red meat
• full-fat dairy
• margarine
• hydrogenated oils
• baked goods

Various low cholesterol recipe books are available to purchase online.

In adults, total cholesterol levels less than 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) are considered healthy.

• A reading between 200 and 239 mg/dL is borderline high.
• A reading of 240 mg/dL and above is considered high.

LDL cholesterol levels should be less than 100 mg/dL.

• 100–129 mg/dL is acceptable for people with no health problems but may be a concern for anyone with heart disease or heart disease risk factors.
• 130—159 mg/dL is borderline high.
• 160–189 mg/dL is high.
• 190 mg/dL or higher is considered very high.

HDL levels should be kept higher. The optimal reading for HDL levels is of 60 mg/dL or higher.

• A reading of less than 40 mg/dL can be a major risk factor for heart disease.
• A reading from 41 mg/dL to 59 mg/dL is borderline low.

People who wish to reduce their cholesterol levels or maintain a suitable level can make four major lifestyle decisions.

• eat a heart-healthy diet
• regularly exercise
• avoid smoking
• achieve and maintain a healthy weight

These actions will reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attack.

Since 2013, guidelines on reducing or preventing high cholesterol have focused on addressing lifestyle risks, even at a young age.

Since 2018, new guidelines published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology also urged doctors also to discuss with individuals the following factors that may increase a person’s risk:

• family history and ethnicity
• certain health conditions that increase the risk of high cholesterol, such as chronic kidney disease or chronic inflammatory conditions

Taking these factors into consideration will lead to a more personalized approach to the treatment and prevention of high cholesterol levels.

There are a number of ways to treat high cholesterol; these include:

Lipid-lowering therapy

For a person with high cholesterol levels, drug treatment will depend on their cholesterol level and other risk factors.

Recommendatoins usually start with diet and exercise, but people with a higher risk of a heart attack may need to use statins or other medications.

Statins are the leading group of cholesterol-lowering drugs. The statins available on prescription in the United States include:

• atorvastatin (brand named Lipitor)
• fluvastatin (Lescol)
• lovastatin (Mevacor, Altoprev)
• pravastatin (Pravachol)
• rosuvastatin calcium (Crestor)
• simvastatin (Zocor)

Apart from statins, a doctor may prescribe:

• selective cholesterol absorption inhibitors
• resins
• fibrates
• niacin

In 2017, researchers noted that a new drug, ezetimibe, can significantly reduce the risk of a major cardiovascular event in people with a high risk of such events. Etezimibe reduces lipid levels by limiting the absorption of cholesterol in the intestine.

The authors of the updated also mentioned another new type of drug: pro-protein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors. There is evidence that these drugs are effective at reducing cholesterol levels, especially when a person uses them with ezetimibe.

In 2018, new guidelines recommended a stepped approach, depending on how high an individual’s risk is.

If a person has already had a cardiovascular event, such as a heart attack, a doctor may recommend using ezetimibe as well as a statin. For those at very high risk, the guidelines also recommend adding a PCSK9 inhibitor.

However, the guidelines also note that PCSK9 inhibitors are expensive, and insurance companies may not cover their cost. For this reason, this option is likely to be only for those with a very high risk.

Statin safety

The use of statins has caused some debate because, like all drugs, they can have side effects.

These include:

• statin-induced myopathy (a muscle tissue disease)
• fatigue
• a slightly greater risk of diabetes and diabetes complications, though this is hotly debated

A person should not stop taking a statin without speaking to a doctor, as they may increase their risk of cardiovascular problems.

A doctor might recommend:

• switching to a different medication
• increasing efforts to reduce cholesterol through lifestyle changes

In the past, people have aimed to reduce cholesterol to a target level, for instance, below 100 mg/ dL, but this is no longer the case.

Randomized, controlled clinical trials have not produced enough evidence to support treatment to a specific target.

However, some physicians may still use targets to help guide therapy.

10-year risk of a heart attack

Cholesterol levels play a major part in an individual’s risk of having a heart attack within the next 10 years.

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute provide an online calculator of cardiovascular risk.

Using research evidence, it weighs the risk according to these factors:

• age
• sex
• cholesterol levels
• smoking status
• blood pressure

Guidelines published in 2018 consider this calculator and essential tool for assessing cholesterol levels and their risk.

Cholesterol: What causes high cholesterol?

We include products we think are useful for our readers. If you buy through links on this page, we may earn a small commission Here’s our process.

Medical News Today only shows you brands and products that we stand behind.

Our team thoroughly researches and evaluates the recommendations we make on our site. To establish that the product manufacturers addressed safety and efficacy standards, we:

• Evaluate ingredients and composition: Do they have the potential to cause harm?
• Fact-check all health claims: Do they align with the current body of scientific evidence?
• Assess the brand: Does it operate with integrity and adhere to industry best practices?

We do the research so you can find trusted products for your health and wellness.

Read more about our vetting process.

Was this helpful?

Cholesterol is an essential substance for the body. Dietary factors and some health conditions can lead to high cholesterol, which is a risk factor for several conditions.

Cholesterol is present in every cell of the body and has important natural functions when it comes to digesting foods, producing hormones, and generating vitamin D. The body produces it, but people also consume it in food. It is waxy and fat-like in appearance.

There are two types of cholesterol:

• low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol
• high-density lipoproteins (HDL), or “good” cholesterol

In this article, we will explain the role of cholesterol. We will also discuss the causes of high cholesterol, and its symptoms, treatment, and prevention.

Fast facts on cholesterol:

• Cholesterol is an essential substance that the body produces but which people also consume in foods.
• Risk factors for high cholesterol include family history and the modifiable lifestyle choices of diet and exercise.
• Having high cholesterol does not usually produce any symptoms.
• If lifestyle changes are unsuccessful or cholesterol levels are very high, a doctor may prescribe a lipid-lowering drug, such as a statin.

Was this helpful?

Cholesterol is an oil-based substance. It does not mix with the blood, which is water-based.

It travels around the body in lipoproteins.

Two types of lipoprotein carry the parcels of cholesterol:

• Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Cholesterol that travels in this way is unhealthful or “bad” cholesterol.
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL): Cholesterol that is present in HDL is known as “good” cholesterol.

Cholesterol has four primary functions, without which we could not survive.

These are:

• contributing to the structure of cell walls
• making up digestive bile acids in the intestine
• allowing the body to produce vitamin D
• enabling the body to make certain hormones

High cholesterol is a significant risk factor for coronary heart disease and a cause of heart attacks.

A build-up of cholesterol is part of the process that narrows arteries, called atherosclerosis. In atherosclerosis, plaques form and cause restriction of blood flow.

Reducing the intake of fat in the diet helps to manage cholesterol levels. In particular, it is helpful to limit foods that contain:

• Cholesterol: This is present in animal foods, meat, and cheese.
• Saturated fat: This occurs in some meats, dairy products, chocolate, baked goods, deep-fried, and processed foods.
• Trans fats: This occurs in some fried and processed foods.

Excess weight or obesity can also lead to higher blood LDL levels. Genetic factors can contribute to high cholesterol. People with the inherited condition familial hypercholesterolemia have very high LDL levels.

Other conditions that can lead to high cholesterol levels, include:

• diabetes
• liver or kidney disease
• polycystic ovary syndrome
• pregnancy and other conditions that increase levels of female hormones
• underactive thyroid gland
• drugs that increase LDL cholesterol and decrease HDL cholesterol, such as progestins, anabolic steroids, and corticosteroids

A person with high cholesterol levels often has no signs or symptoms, but routine screening and regular blood tests can help detect high levels.

A person who does not undergo testing may have a heart attack without warning, because they did not know that they had high cholesterol levels. Regular tests can help to reduce this risk.

A report from Harvard Health has identified 11 cholesterol-lowering foods that actively decrease cholesterol levels:

• oats
• barley and whole grains
• beans
• eggplant and okra
• nuts
• vegetable oil (canola, sunflower)
• fruits (mainly apples, grapes, strawberries, and citrus)
• soy and soy-based foods
• fatty fish (particularly salmon, tuna, and sardines)
• foods rich in fiber

Adding these to a balanced diet can help keep cholesterol in check.

The same report also lists foods that are bad for cholesterol levels. These include:

• red meat
• full-fat dairy
• margarine
• hydrogenated oils
• baked goods

Various low cholesterol recipe books are available to purchase online.

In adults, total cholesterol levels less than 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) are considered healthy.

• A reading between 200 and 239 mg/dL is borderline high.
• A reading of 240 mg/dL and above is considered high.

LDL cholesterol levels should be less than 100 mg/dL.

• 100–129 mg/dL is acceptable for people with no health problems but may be a concern for anyone with heart disease or heart disease risk factors.
• 130—159 mg/dL is borderline high.
• 160–189 mg/dL is high.
• 190 mg/dL or higher is considered very high.

HDL levels should be kept higher. The optimal reading for HDL levels is of 60 mg/dL or higher.

• A reading of less than 40 mg/dL can be a major risk factor for heart disease.
• A reading from 41 mg/dL to 59 mg/dL is borderline low.

People who wish to reduce their cholesterol levels or maintain a suitable level can make four major lifestyle decisions.

• eat a heart-healthy diet
• regularly exercise
• avoid smoking
• achieve and maintain a healthy weight

These actions will reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attack.

Since 2013, guidelines on reducing or preventing high cholesterol have focused on addressing lifestyle risks, even at a young age.

Since 2018, new guidelines published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology also urged doctors also to discuss with individuals the following factors that may increase a person’s risk:

• family history and ethnicity
• certain health conditions that increase the risk of high cholesterol, such as chronic kidney disease or chronic inflammatory conditions

Taking these factors into consideration will lead to a more personalized approach to the treatment and prevention of high cholesterol levels.

There are a number of ways to treat high cholesterol; these include:

Lipid-lowering therapy

For a person with high cholesterol levels, drug treatment will depend on their cholesterol level and other risk factors.

Recommendatoins usually start with diet and exercise, but people with a higher risk of a heart attack may need to use statins or other medications.

Statins are the leading group of cholesterol-lowering drugs. The statins available on prescription in the United States include:

• atorvastatin (brand named Lipitor)
• fluvastatin (Lescol)
• lovastatin (Mevacor, Altoprev)
• pravastatin (Pravachol)
• rosuvastatin calcium (Crestor)
• simvastatin (Zocor)

Apart from statins, a doctor may prescribe:

• selective cholesterol absorption inhibitors
• resins
• fibrates
• niacin

In 2017, researchers noted that a new drug, ezetimibe, can significantly reduce the risk of a major cardiovascular event in people with a high risk of such events. Etezimibe reduces lipid levels by limiting the absorption of cholesterol in the intestine.

The authors of the updated also mentioned another new type of drug: pro-protein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors. There is evidence that these drugs are effective at reducing cholesterol levels, especially when a person uses them with ezetimibe.

In 2018, new guidelines recommended a stepped approach, depending on how high an individual’s risk is.

If a person has already had a cardiovascular event, such as a heart attack, a doctor may recommend using ezetimibe as well as a statin. For those at very high risk, the guidelines also recommend adding a PCSK9 inhibitor.

However, the guidelines also note that PCSK9 inhibitors are expensive, and insurance companies may not cover their cost. For this reason, this option is likely to be only for those with a very high risk.

Statin safety

The use of statins has caused some debate because, like all drugs, they can have side effects.

These include:

• statin-induced myopathy (a muscle tissue disease)
• fatigue
• a slightly greater risk of diabetes and diabetes complications, though this is hotly debated

A person should not stop taking a statin without speaking to a doctor, as they may increase their risk of cardiovascular problems.

A doctor might recommend:

• switching to a different medication
• increasing efforts to reduce cholesterol through lifestyle changes

In the past, people have aimed to reduce cholesterol to a target level, for instance, below 100 mg/ dL, but this is no longer the case.

Randomized, controlled clinical trials have not produced enough evidence to support treatment to a specific target.

However, some physicians may still use targets to help guide therapy.

10-year risk of a heart attack

Cholesterol levels play a major part in an individual’s risk of having a heart attack within the next 10 years.

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute provide an online calculator of cardiovascular risk.

Using research evidence, it weighs the risk according to these factors:

• age
• sex
• cholesterol levels
• smoking status
• blood pressure

Guidelines published in 2018 consider this calculator and essential tool for assessing cholesterol levels and their risk.

Prevention of diseases of the heart and blood vessels and their complications

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• Heart and blood vessels

Cost of the complex

You can also choose the tests you need separately and see the cost in the calculator with a flexible discount!

What not to do before tests?

Alcohol

2 days before the test, you should stop drinking alcohol.

Cigarettes

Refrain from smoking 2 hours before the test, as smoking leads to changes in blood counts.

Taking medications

Medications affect test results. Tell your doctor or nurse if you are taking medication.

Sports

Avoid physical and emotional stress for 1 hour, as they affect hormonal and biochemical changes.

Unhealthy food

Some studies require fasting tests. And you have to stick to your diet.

Frequently Asked Questions

Preparing the patient for the blood donation procedure. Part 1.

1. A number of tests are done on an empty stomach. For example, biochemical (glucose, cholesterol, bilirubin, etc.) and serological tests (syphilis, hepatitis B), hormones (TSH, parathyroid hormone), etc. “Fasting” is when at least 8 hours pass between the last meal and blood sampling (preferably at least 12 hours). Juice, tea, coffee, especially with sugar, are also food, so you have to be patient. You can drink water.

2. Strictly on an empty stomach (after a 12-hour fast), you should donate blood to determine the parameters of the lipid profile: cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides.

3. If a general blood test is to be taken, the last meal should be no later than 1 hour before blood donation. Breakfast may consist of unsweetened tea, unsweetened porridge without butter and milk, an apple.

Preparing the patient for blood donation. Part 2.

4. It is advisable to exclude fat, fried foods and alcohol from the diet 1-2 days before the examination. If there was a feast the day before, postpone the laboratory test for 1-2 days. Refrain from smoking one hour before blood sampling.

5. The content of many tests in the blood is subject to daily fluctuations, so for some tests, blood should be donated strictly at a certain time of the day. So, blood for some hormones (TSH and parathyroid hormone), as well as for iron, is taken only until 10 am.

6. When donating venous blood, it is necessary to exclude factors that affect the results of examinations: physical stress (running, climbing stairs), emotional arousal. Therefore, before the procedure, you should rest for 10-15 minutes in the waiting room, calm down.

Preparing the patient for the blood donation procedure. Part 3.

7. Blood is taken for analysis before taking medications (for example, antibacterial and chemotherapeutic drugs) or not earlier than 10 to 14 days after they are discontinued. The exception is when they want to study the concentration of drugs in the blood (for example, valproic acid, anticonvulsants). If you are taking medication, be sure to tell your doctor about it.

8. Blood should not be donated after x-rays, rectal examinations, or physiotherapy.

9. In hormonal studies in women of reproductive age (approximately 12-13 years of age until the onset of menopause), the results are influenced by physiological factors associated with the stage of the menstrual cycle. Therefore, when preparing for an examination for the hormones FSH, LH, prolactin, estriol, estradiol, progesterone, the phase of the cycle should be indicated. When conducting a study on sex hormones, strictly adhere to the recommendations of your doctor about the day of the menstrual cycle on which you need to donate blood.
10. When testing for infections, it should be taken into account that, depending on the period of infection and the state of the immune system, any patient may have a negative result. But, nevertheless, a negative result does not completely exclude infection. In doubtful cases, it is recommended to re-analyze.

Urine test preparation requirements

Self-collection at home. Before collection, it is necessary to obtain “Instructions for collection” and containers for transportation of biomaterial in any treatment room of the laboratory (issued free of charge).

To obtain objective test results, you need to prepare for the study: the day before, refrain from physical activity, drinking alcohol; it is not recommended to eat vegetables and fruits that can change the color of urine (beets, etc.), do not take diuretics. Do not collect urine during menstruation. After cystoscopy, urinalysis can be performed no earlier than 5-7 days later.

Morning urine collection rules

You must collect the first urine sample in the morning. Before collecting urine, it is necessary to carry out a thorough toilet of the external genital organs, washing them in a shower with soap so that no secretions from them get into the urine.

After this preparation, collect the middle portion of urine (excluding the first and last portions) in a sterile cup or a clean, dry container previously prepared.

Rules for the collection of daily urine

Urine is collected during the day. The first morning portion of urine is excluded. All subsequent portions of urine allocated during the day, night and the morning portion of the next day are collected in a container that is stored in the refrigerator (+2 – +8) during the entire collection time.

At the end of the collection, accurately (up to 5 ml) measure the volume of urine excreted per day (diuresis), be sure to mix and immediately pour a small amount (about 10 ml.) of urine into another container. It is this container that is delivered to the laboratory.

Rules for stool collection

To collect biomaterial, you can get a universal sterile container and collection instructions in any laboratory procedure room.

Feces for dysbacteriosis are taken exclusively in a universal sterile container, previously received in the laboratory’s treatment room.
Feces are collected by natural defecation into a clean, dry container (pot, vessel) or onto a clean surface, which can be a sheet of paper or polyethylene.

When using a pot, a vessel, it is preliminarily washed well with soap and a sponge, rinsed repeatedly with tap water, and then doused with boiling water and cooled.

Do not collect feces from the toilet. Admixture of urine and genital secretions to the feces should be avoided. Feces are taken with a spoon – spatula, mainly from the middle portion into a sterile container with a sealed lid in the amount of 1-3 g (1 spoon). If there is mucus and blood in the feces, these areas are the most valuable in the study.

Tear Collection Rules

The material is self-collected at home. Before collection, it is necessary to obtain “Instructions for collection” and containers for transportation of biomaterial in any treatment room of the laboratory (issued free of charge).

Lacrimation is provoked to collect lacrimal secretions (smell the cut onion).

Tears are aspirated with a sterile syringe without a needle from the corner of the eye. The minimum amount is 0.5 ml.

Sputum collection rules

The material is self-collected at home. Before collection, it is necessary to obtain “Instructions for collection” and containers for transportation of biomaterial in any treatment room of the laboratory (issued free of charge).

A universal sterile container is available for collection of biomaterial in any laboratory treatment room.

Morning sputum released during a coughing fit is to be examined. Before coughing, it is necessary to brush your teeth and rinse your mouth with boiled water in order to mechanically remove food debris, desquamated epithelium and microflora of the oral cavity. It is necessary to ensure that saliva and nasopharyngeal mucus do not get into the container (especially with a cold!). The secreted sputum is collected in a sterile container. If the sputum is poorly separated, the patient is given expectorants the day before.

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• Diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome

The feeling of constant fatigue is familiar to most people. The syndrome of constant fatigue is associated with mental and physical weakness, which lasts for six months for unknown reasons. Such a disease arises directly from the accelerated pace of life and the constant increase in the flow of information that a person perceives throughout the day.

Typically, chronic fatigue syndrome occurs more frequently in women than in men. The disease is typical for active, successful people who can be called workaholics. With such a lifestyle, the nervous system is constantly in tension and a breakdown can occur at any moment.

The “Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Diagnosis” program allows you to diagnose the pathology of that weak link that malfunctions in the body and leads to a constant feeling of fatigue. Doctors will give their recommendations to improve the quality of life and prescribe the necessary treatment.

What is included in the treatment

Tests

Complete blood count with leukocyte formula (with ESR)

Complete urinalysis with sediment microscopy

Glucose

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

ALT (alanine amino transferase)

AST ( aspartate amino transferase)

Alkaline phosphatase

G-GTP (gamma-glutamyl transferase)

Total cholesterol

LDL cholesterol

HDL cholesterol

Total bilirubin

Triglycerides

Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine

Uric acid

Creatinine

C – reactive protein – marker of the acute phase of inflammation

Rev matoid factor

Iron

HIV antigen/antibodies total

Syphilis ELISA

Hepatitis B screening with confirmatory test

Hepatitis C screening with confirmatory test

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) PCR diagnostics

PCR diagnostics of toxoplasmosis (qualities)

PCR Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2 without virus typing

PCR Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)

Diagnostics

Registration and interpretation electrocardiograms

Ultrasound examination of the abdominal organs and kidneys

Ultrasound examination of the vessels of the head and neck

Consultations

Initial consultation of a general practitioner

Initial consultation of a neurologist

Initial consultation with an ophthalmologist

How treatment is carried out

I

Laboratory tests

A range of necessary laboratory tests is provided to exclude or identify possible pathologies

II

Hardware diagnostics

Ultrasound and functional diagnostics procedures are performed to quickly identify violations in the work of the body.