How does the endocrine system function. What are the major glands in the human body. Why are hormones crucial for maintaining bodily functions. What role does the pituitary gland play in the endocrine system. How do endocrine disorders affect health.

Understanding the Endocrine System: An Overview

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These chemical messengers play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, from metabolism and growth to reproduction and mood. Unlike the nervous system, which uses electrical impulses for rapid communication, the endocrine system relies on hormones for slower, but longer-lasting effects throughout the body.

Hormones are similar to neurotransmitters in that they must bind to specific receptors to exert their effects. However, hormones are released into the bloodstream and can affect cells throughout the body, while neurotransmitters typically act locally at synapses. This widespread distribution allows hormones to coordinate complex processes across multiple organ systems.

The Major Glands of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of several glands distributed throughout the body. Each gland produces specific hormones that target particular tissues or organs. Let’s explore the main components of this intricate system:

The Pituitary Gland: The Master Regulator

Often referred to as the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus. Despite its small size (about the size of a pea), the pituitary plays a central role in coordinating the activities of other endocrine glands.

• Produces growth hormone, essential for childhood growth and adult metabolism
• Secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands
• Releases thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) to control thyroid function
• Produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) for reproductive function
• Secretes prolactin, which stimulates milk production in mothers

The pituitary gland works in close association with the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that acts as a link between the nervous and endocrine systems. The hypothalamus produces hormones that either stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the pituitary gland, creating a complex feedback system.

The Thyroid Gland: Metabolism and Growth

Located in the neck, the thyroid gland is butterfly-shaped and wraps around the trachea. It produces hormones that play a vital role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development.

• Secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which control metabolic rate
• Produces calcitonin, involved in calcium homeostasis

Thyroid disorders can have significant effects on overall health. Hyperthyroidism, characterized by excessive hormone production, can lead to weight loss, anxiety, and rapid heartbeat. Conversely, hypothyroidism, or underactive thyroid, may cause fatigue, weight gain, and depression.

The Adrenal Glands: Stress Response and More

Situated atop the kidneys, the adrenal glands are composed of two distinct parts: the adrenal cortex (outer layer) and the adrenal medulla (inner layer). These glands are crucial for the body’s stress response and regulate various physiological processes.

• The adrenal cortex produces cortisol, aldosterone, and small amounts of sex hormones
• The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

During times of stress, the adrenal glands release hormones that prepare the body for “fight or flight” responses, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability.

The Pancreas: Regulating Blood Sugar Levels

The pancreas is a unique organ that functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland. As part of the endocrine system, it plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels through the production of insulin and glucagon.

• Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting uptake and storage in cells
• Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the release of stored glucose

Diabetes mellitus is a common endocrine disorder characterized by the body’s inability to properly regulate blood sugar levels. In Type 1 diabetes, the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin, while in Type 2 diabetes, cells become resistant to insulin’s effects.

The Gonads: Reproductive Hormones and Sexual Development

The gonads, or sex glands, are responsible for producing hormones that regulate sexual development, reproduction, and sexual behavior.

Ovaries in Females

The ovaries produce several hormones crucial for female reproductive function:

• Estrogen: Promotes development of female secondary sex characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle
• Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and supports early pregnancy
• Small amounts of androgens, including testosterone

Testes in Males

The testes are the primary male reproductive organs and produce:

• Testosterone: Promotes development of male secondary sex characteristics, sperm production, and sexual behavior
• Small amounts of estrogen

The balance of sex hormones plays a crucial role in maintaining reproductive health and influencing sexual behavior in both males and females.

Hormonal Interactions and Feedback Loops

The endocrine system operates through a series of complex feedback loops that help maintain hormonal balance. These loops involve the hypothalamus, pituitary, and target glands, creating a system of checks and balances to ensure proper hormone levels.

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the most common type of hormonal regulation. In this process, the presence of a hormone inhibits further hormone production. For example:

1. The hypothalamus releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
2. TRH stimulates the pituitary to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. TSH prompts the thyroid to release thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
4. As T3 and T4 levels rise, they inhibit the release of TRH and TSH, creating a balance

Positive Feedback

Although less common, positive feedback loops also occur in the endocrine system. In these cases, the presence of a hormone stimulates the production of more of that hormone. A notable example is the surge of oxytocin during childbirth:

1. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions
2. Contractions cause the release of more oxytocin
3. This cycle continues, intensifying contractions until the baby is born

Endocrine Disorders: When Hormones Go Awry

Endocrine disorders occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, or when the body doesn’t respond properly to hormones. These imbalances can have wide-ranging effects on health and well-being.

Common Endocrine Disorders

• Diabetes mellitus: Inability to regulate blood sugar levels
• Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism: Underactive or overactive thyroid gland
• Cushing’s syndrome: Excess cortisol production
• Addison’s disease: Insufficient production of adrenal hormones
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Hormonal imbalance affecting female reproductive health
• Growth hormone deficiency: Inadequate production of growth hormone

Diagnosis of endocrine disorders often involves blood tests to measure hormone levels, imaging studies to examine gland structure, and sometimes stimulation or suppression tests to evaluate gland function.

The Endocrine System and Behavior: Behavioral Endocrinology

The field of behavioral endocrinology explores the intricate relationship between hormones and behavior. This bidirectional interaction means that hormones can influence behavior, and behavior can, in turn, affect hormone levels.

Hormonal Influences on Behavior

Hormones play a significant role in shaping various behaviors, including:

• Aggression: Testosterone has been linked to increased aggressive behavior in some studies
• Sexual behavior: Sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone influence sexual desire and mating behaviors
• Parental care: Hormones such as oxytocin and prolactin are involved in bonding and caregiving behaviors
• Stress response: Cortisol and other stress hormones mediate the body’s reaction to stressful situations
• Mood: Hormonal imbalances can contribute to mood disorders like depression and anxiety

Behavioral Influences on Hormones

Conversely, behaviors and environmental factors can impact hormone levels:

• Stress: Chronic stress can lead to prolonged elevation of cortisol levels
• Exercise: Physical activity can influence the release of endorphins and growth hormone
• Social interactions: Positive social experiences can boost oxytocin levels
• Light exposure: The circadian rhythm, influenced by light, affects the production of melatonin and other hormones

Understanding these complex interactions between hormones and behavior is crucial for developing comprehensive approaches to mental and physical health.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to grow, new avenues for research and treatment are emerging. Some exciting areas of development include:

Personalized Endocrine Therapy

Advances in genetic testing and molecular biology are paving the way for more personalized approaches to treating endocrine disorders. By identifying specific genetic variations or hormone receptor differences, treatments can be tailored to individual patients for better outcomes.

Endocrine Disruptors and Environmental Health

Increasing awareness of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the environment has sparked research into their long-term effects on human health. This field of study aims to understand how these substances interfere with hormone function and develop strategies to mitigate their impact.

Neuroendocrine Interactions

The complex relationship between the nervous system and the endocrine system continues to be a fertile area of research. Scientists are exploring how neural circuits interact with hormone-producing glands and how this communication influences various physiological processes.

Hormone Replacement Therapies

Ongoing research is focused on developing more effective and safer hormone replacement therapies for conditions such as menopause, andropause, and various endocrine disorders. This includes exploring novel delivery methods and bioidentical hormones.

The endocrine system’s intricate network of glands and hormones plays a vital role in maintaining our health and well-being. From regulating metabolism and growth to influencing behavior and mood, hormones are essential chemical messengers that keep our bodies functioning in harmony. As research in endocrinology advances, we continue to uncover new insights into this complex system, leading to improved diagnostic tools and treatment options for endocrine disorders. Understanding the endocrine system is not only crucial for medical professionals but also for individuals seeking to optimize their health and well-being through lifestyle choices that support hormonal balance.

The Endocrine System – General Psychology

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Biopsychology

Learning Objectives

• Describe the endocrine system and explain its primary responsibilities within the body

The consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as (Figure 1). Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters, which are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the effects of hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting.

Figure 1. The major glands of the endocrine system are shown.

The study of psychology and the endocrine system is called behavioral endocrinology, which is the scientific study of the interaction between hormones and behavior. This interaction is bidirectional: hormones can influence behavior, and behavior can sometimes influence hormone concentrations. Hormones regulate behaviors such as aggression, mating, and parenting of individuals. Hormones are involved in regulating all sorts of bodily functions, and they are ultimately controlled through interactions between the hypothalamus (in the central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in the endocrine system). Imbalances in hormones are related to a number of disorders. This section explores some of the major glands that make up the endocrine system and the hormones secreted by these glands.

Major Glands

The descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body.

Located in the neck, the releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. In hyperthyroidism, or Grave’s disease, the thyroid secretes too much of the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss. In hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience tiredness, and they often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid disorders are often treatable with medications that help reestablish a balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid.

The sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon). People who suffer from do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume.

The secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads are the testis. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete androgens, such as testosterone.

Dig Deeper: Athletes and Anabolic Steroids

Although it is against most laws to do so, many professional athletes and body builders use anabolic steroid drugs to improve their athletic performance and physique. Anabolic steroid drugs mimic the effects of the body’s own steroid hormones, like testosterone and its derivatives. These drugs have the potential to provide a competitive edge by increasing muscle mass, strength, and endurance, although not all users may experience these results. Moreover, the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) does not come without risks. Anabolic steroid use has been linked with a wide variety of potentially negative outcomes, ranging in severity from largely cosmetic (acne) to life-threatening (heart attack). Furthermore, the use of these substances can result in profound changes in mood and can increase aggressive behavior (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001).

Baseball player Alex Rodriguez (A-Rod) has been at the center of a media storm regarding his use of illegal PEDs. Rodriguez’s performance on the field was unparalleled while using the drugs; his success played a large role in negotiating a contract that made him the highest-paid player in professional baseball. Although Rodriguez maintains that he had not used PEDs, he was suspended for the entire 2014 regular season and postseason, costing him more than 20 million dollars in earnings (Gaines, 2013). What are your thoughts on athletes and doping? Do you believe the use of PEDs should be banned? Why or why not? What advice would you give an athlete who was considering using PEDs?

Hormones and Behavior

How might behaviors affect hormones? Extensive studies on male zebra finches and their singing (only males finches sing) demonstrate that the hormones testosterone and estradiol affect their singing, but the reciprocal relation also occurs; that is, behavior can affect hormone concentrations. For example, the sight of a territorial intruder may elevate blood testosterone concentrations in resident male birds and thereby stimulate singing or fighting behavior. Similarly, male mice or rhesus monkeys that lose a fight decrease circulating testosterone concentrations for several days or even weeks afterward. Comparable results have also been reported in humans. Testosterone concentrations are affected not only in humans involved in physical combat, but also in those involved in simulated battles. For example, testosterone concentrations were elevated in winners and reduced in losers of regional chess tournaments.

People do not have to be directly involved in a contest to have their hormones affected by the outcome of the contest. Male fans of both the Brazilian and Italian teams were recruited to provide saliva samples to be assayed for testosterone before and after the final game of the World Cup soccer match in 1994. Brazil and Italy were tied going into the final game, but Brazil won on a penalty kick at the last possible moment. The Brazilian fans were elated and the Italian fans were crestfallen. When the samples were assayed, 11 of 12 Brazilian fans who were sampled had increased testosterone concentrations, and 9 of 9 Italian fans had decreased testosterone concentrations, compared with pre-game baseline values (Dabbs, 2000).

In some cases, hormones can be affected by anticipation of behavior. For example, testosterone concentrations also influence sexual motivation and behavior in women. In one study, the interaction between sexual intercourse and testosterone was compared with other activities (cuddling or exercise) in women (van Anders, Hamilton, Schmidt, & Watson, 2007). On three separate occasions, women provided a pre-activity, post-activity, and next-morning saliva sample. After analysis, the women’s testosterone was determined to be elevated prior to intercourse as compared to other times. Thus, an anticipatory relationship exists between sexual behavior and testosterone. Testosterone values were higher post-intercourse compared to exercise, suggesting that engaging in sexual behavior may also influence hormone concentrations in women.

Link to Learning

Learn more about endocrinology from The Noba Psychology article, “Hormones and Behavior.”

Think It Over

Given the negative health consequences associated with the use of anabolic steroids, what kinds of considerations might be involved in a person’s decision to use them?

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• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution

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• The Endocrine System. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/3-5-the-endocrine-system. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction.
• Hormones and Behavior and introductory section and part on endocrinology. Authored by: Randy J. Nelson. Provided by: The Ohio State University. Located at: http://nobaproject.com/textbooks/wendy-king-introduction-to-psychology-the-full-noba-collection/modules/hormones-behavior. Project: The Noba Project. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Biology4Kids.com: Animal Systems: Endocrine System

 
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The endocrine system is one of the more difficult systems that you will learn about in class. Most of the activities of the system are not seen and you probably don’t know that anything is happening. You definitely won’t see any obvious problems, only the results of problems. Most of the early information about the endocrine system came from studying things that went wrong with the system.

Even today, there are still many mysteries related to this system and it’s activities. The best description we can offer is to describe the endocrine system as the chemical brother of the nervous system. While the nervous system transmits information and instructions using electricity, the endocrine system transmits information with chemicals and biological compounds.

This system controls many of the biochemical pathways that occur in your body. The core tool used by the endocrine system is a compound called a hormone. Your body uses dozens of hormones to regulate your growth, digestion, body temperature, and glucose metabolism (to name a few). A hormone released by an endocrine gland can travel throughout the body and change the activity of cells from many other systems. The endocrine system is also unique in that it uses glands and cells within organs that are all closely related to other systems.

We don’t know where to begin the discussion of endocrine interaction with other systems. The endocrine system is everywhere and the chemicals produced by the system act in a variety of ways on every cell of your body. The circulatory system is the transport system for endocrine information. While the nervous system uses neurons, the endocrine chemicals and hormones must circulate through the body via blood vessels.

Many glands in your body secrete hormones into the blood. You have a pituitary gland in the base of your skull that releases hormones that control blood pressure and your excretory system. You have a thyroid gland in your neck that controls your bone growth rate and metabolism. You even have a tiny little adrenal gland above your kidneys that releases adrenalin if you get excited. Endocrine glands are everywhere.

Because our endocrine system is very delicate, many things can go wrong. An extreme example is if a gland stops working, but they are more likely to work more or less than they should. If you don’t get enough iodine in your food, your thyroid gland can have big problems and grow to the size of a baseball called a goiter. Other common problems with your thyroid can increase your body’s metabolism and make you jumpy and sweaty (hyperthyroidism) or decrease the levels and make you sluggish (hypothyroidism). Some individuals have a problem making insulin in their pancreas. Those individuals have a disease called diabetes and they are not able to metabolize carbohydrates correctly. They must often take injections of insulin to counteract the problem.

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Prevention and correction of diseases of the endocrine system Tentorium

The role of the endocrine system in the life of the body

To the types of regulatory mechanisms that allow living organisms to maintain life constants at a certain level, maintain the integrity of the body and at the same time respond sensitively, adapt to changes external environment, include endocrine glands.

When the 75-year-old French physiologist Charles Brown-Séquard in 1889In the year he reported on his own experiments, the whole world was surprised by the results of the experiments. The old doctor injected himself with extracts from the testes of dogs and guinea pigs. From this medicine, he was dramatically transformed – his gray hair darkened, unusual cheerfulness appeared, a surge of strength was felt.

Many laboratories around the world began to test Brown-Sequard’s experiments: decrepit dogs were injected with extracts of young testes or seed glands were implanted. The results were amazing: the dogs stopped losing hair, their eyes no longer watered, their sense of smell became more acute, they showed signs of sexual anxiety – in a word, dog old age disappeared. Old roosters with planted testicles victoriously shook their newly reddened crest, commanded chickens, fought with rivals. The hens, which were planted with testicles, were also transformed: they grew a comb and a kind of spurs, they fought and forgot to carry eggs, and everything else tried to crow. People who were transplanted with monkey testicles seemed to have been thrown off their shoulders for several decades, but soon enough disappointment set in.

The action of the extract turned out to be short-lived, and old age returned in an even more unsightly form. Yet no one could deny the main thing – science has discovered new substances that stimulate the activity of the body. These substances are produced by the glands, but because glands secrete their secret directly into the blood, and not through special excretory ducts, like the liver or salivary glands, they were called endocrine glands, or endocrine glands (from the word “endo” – inside, “crinos” – I secrete).

Almost 30 years of searching and research should have passed, until in 1920 these substances received the name of hormones from the Greek word “hormeo – excite”. Hormones are diverse in chemical nature and, being included in various biochemical cycles, regulate the normal course of certain metabolic reactions. The endocrine glands are connected to each other and work in close cooperation. Many functions of these glands and the activity of the nervous system are interdependent. It is known that vitality, the speed of brain activity, adaptation to changing living conditions depend primarily on the activity of the brain, but hormones that interact with the nervous system play a large role. The term “hormone” was introduced into science by E. Starling at 1905 year.

Hormones are of great importance in human and animal life. Their multifaceted influence is just beginning to be widely revealed. Hormones cannot be attributed to any one class of chemical compounds. All of them are organic substances, but some of them are proteins, others are simpler compounds, polypeptides or steroids.

A distinctive feature of all hormones is that they are excreted by the glands in one part of the body and are carried by the blood throughout the body, where they act even in very small concentrations. Hormones are necessary for the normal functioning of the body, their deficiency or excess leads to disharmony and various kinds of diseases.

Our physique, our physical and mental, emotional state to a large extent depend on the function of our endocrine glands, precisely because the main function of hormones is the chemical coordination of various reactions in the body. The rapid responses of muscles and glands, measured in milliseconds, are administered and controlled by the nervous system. Reactions regulated by hormones develop more slowly – within minutes, hours – and are longer in nature. The endocrine system regulates long-term adaptive changes in metabolism, growth and reproduction.

According to the chemical structure, hormones are divided into steroid, protein (proteohormones) and peptide. Some hormones are modified amino acids (tyrosine and tryptophan derivatives).

Hormones, acting on mineral and water metabolism, change the concentration of electrolytes in tissue fluid. Thus, the direct effect of hormones on cells is carried out mainly through enzyme systems and through a change in the permeability of cell membranes.

The effect of hormones on the structure and functions of the body can be carried out with the participation of the nervous system by acting on receptors. These include chemoreceptors located in the walls of various blood vessels, which serve as the beginning of a reflex reaction.

Thus, the whole variety of regulatory mechanisms can be reduced to two types: regulation of metabolic processes through the nervous system, primarily through the central nervous system, and regulation of metabolic processes by entering the blood and lymph of specific substances that either activate or inhibit metabolism. Both types of regulation are closely related to each other. Microelements: iodine, chromium, zinc, selenium have a great influence on the work of the endocrine system.

Iodine . In the body of an adult, it contains about 25 mg, of which half is concentrated in the thyroid gland, entering its structure. It takes part in the formation of the thyroid hormone -thyroxine, which stimulates the basal metabolism, enhances oxidative processes. It is the most important hormone in our body.

The body needs iodine for the functioning of the immune system, brain function, and hormonal balance.

Lack of iodine in the body during the first 6 months of pregnancy threatens mental, neurological and physical defects of the fetus.

Iodine deficiency at an early age leads to cretinism, in adults – to endemic goiter.

Lack of iodine in the body is expressed in the inability to learn in children, in the weakness of the immune system, in female hormonal disorders (fibrocystic mastopathy, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, cancer).

The body’s daily requirement for iodine is 100 – 200 mg (90% is met by food and water).

Iodine is found in the following foods: beef, eggs, butter, fruits, seafood (sea fish: cod, sea bass, mackerel, horse mackerel, haddock, fish oil, a lot of iodine in shrimp and seaweed).

The main supplier of iodine to the body is water. The closer water resources are located to the sea, the more iodine they contain. The zone of endemic goiter in Russia is: the Urals, Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Western and Eastern Siberia. The lack of iodine in the water in these areas is satisfied by adding it to the salt. Salt iodization is a state program to preserve the health of the nation.

In apiphytoproducts, iodine is contained in Api-Spira granules, in all dragee-balms containing bee pollen and propolis.

Chrome . The daily requirement of the body in it is from 50 to 200 mcg. The greatest amount of chromium accumulates in the endocrine glands, liver, intestines.

With age, the amount of chromium in the body decreases, which leads to a deterioration in metabolism in the elderly and aging.

Chromium takes part in carbohydrate metabolism (turns sugar into energy), stabilizes the level of insulin in the blood. It strengthens muscles and stores energy in the body, reduces cravings for sweets and is useful in a weight loss regimen. With a lack of chromium in the body, cravings for sweets appear, but the more sugar a person consumes, the less chromium remains in the body.

Chromium eliminates excess fat and can be an aid in weight control.

Chromium deficiency leads to an increase in the concentration of insulin in the blood and the development of glucosuria (sugar in the urine) and hyperglycemia on an empty stomach (sugar in the blood), growth retardation, an increase in the concentration of cholesterol in the blood, resulting in an increase in the number of atherosclerotic plaques in the aorta, disorders in the higher nervous activity, epilepsy, a decrease in the number of spermatozoa and their fertilizing ability, causes premenstrual syndrome, obesity, colitis, osteoporosis, glaucoma.

The amount of chromium must be balanced, as its excess causes chromium dermatitis, sores appear on the nasal mucosa, and the cartilaginous nasal septum is destroyed.

Chromium is found in the following foods: mushrooms, barley, whole grains, seafood, meat products. A lot of chromium contains brewer’s yeast.

Apiproducts containing chromium, the following: Tentorium Plus, Api-Spira, Apiformula 1, Apiformula 2, dragee-balm Sorbus, Api-Elite, Khlebina, Apitok and Drone milk (see chapter V).

Zinc . In the human body, it contains from 1.3 to 2.3 g. The daily requirement for zinc is from 10 to 15 mg, which is compensated by the daily diet.

In the body, zinc is involved in maintaining the acid-base balance, in the formation of hydrochloric (hydrochloric) acid in the stomach. It is part of the peptides of the gastrointestinal tract. Zinc has a lipotropic effect, i.e. increases the intensity of fat breakdown in the body, preventing fatty liver (participates in the weight loss program).

Zinc takes an active part in the process of gas exchange (removes carbon dioxide from the body), participates in the process of hematopoiesis. It provides growth, wound healing and healthy skin, prevents baldness. Zinc improves the work of the gonads (prevents prostate adenoma), pancreas, pituitary gland (cerebral appendage). It is necessary for the functioning of all body cells.

With its deficiency, growth slows down, the development of sexual characteristics stops, blood counts worsen, because. Zinc is a component of red blood cells and its presence is as important as the presence of iron.

Zinc deficiency leads to schizophrenia, cancer, viral diseases, ulcers, food allergies, skin diseases, fatigue, loss of appetite, eye cataracts, osteoporosis.

Zinc is excreted from the body during stress, aging, the presence of pesticides, toxic metals in food.

Zinc is found in plant products (legumes, cereal bran) and animal products (liver, egg yolk, chicken meat).

In apiphytoproducts, zinc is found in pills containing obnozhka, Formula Ra, Khlebin, in propolis, a lot in Drutnev and royal jelly (see Chapter V).

Selenium. The body’s need for selenium 0.5 mg per day. It strengthens the human immune system, preventing immunodeficiency. Selenium is the strongest antioxidant. It damages tumor cells, preventing them from developing (can reduce cancer by 40%). It has a better effect in the presence of zinc, vitamins E, C, P-carotene. Selenium prevents hepatitis, herpes, AIDS (inhibits virus-related substance).

Lack of selenium in the body causes hereditary changes and disorders in the activity of the pancreas, is a risk factor for coronary heart failure (heart attack), contributes to the occurrence of malignant tumors in the stomach and intestines, mammary gland, lungs, prostate, ovaries.

An excess of selenium in the body leads to selenium toxicosis: dermatitis, anemia develops, tooth enamel is damaged, nails and hair are affected. Nervous disorders are observed, the spleen enlarges, liver degeneration occurs.

In nature, selenium is found in garlic, and in apiphytoproducts it is found in propolis (Apibalm 1, 2, APV, Product No. 1), Tentorium Plus, Api-Spira, Sorbus dragee-balm, Khlebine. Enriched with selenium Apiphytotonus (see Chapter V).

All trace elements in the human body come from plants. To replenish them, a person needs to eat more than 100 plants, which is practically impossible to provide and therefore the diet lacks trace elements.

Endocrine glands include: pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, goiter, pancreas, gonads, adrenal glands.

Pituitary

it produces a number of hormones that regulate the work of other endocrine glands, they can rightfully be called hormones of hormones.

The pituitary gland is small in size, no more than 15 mm in length and weighs 1 gram. Despite such a tiny size, the pituitary gland consists of several departments, and each is essential for human life and its functions are very diverse. The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is placed on the sphenoid bone in the deepening of the Turkish saddle. It consists of three lobes: anterior, intermediate and posterior.

The anterior pituitary gland controls the growth and development of organisms and, consequently, metabolism, as well as the endocrine functions of other glands. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland regulates the separation of urine, contraction of the vessels of the uterus.

Medium proportion controls the distribution of pigments. Six hormones have been isolated from extracts of the anterior pituitary gland, almost all of them are proteins or polypeptides by chemical nature.

Growth hormone, or somatotropic hormone, is very important – under its influence, the size and growth of the body increase. Growth hormone, acting through enzymes involved in the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, enhances protein synthesis in tissues and increases blood glucose levels, and also enhances the breakdown of fats.

The pituitary hormone that stimulates the activity of the thyroid gland is called thyrotropic. The anterior pituitary gland secretes gonadotropic hormones (sex). They affect the development and function of the testes and ovaries.

The water management of our body is controlled by the posterior pituitary hormone – vasopressin, which, in addition, narrows the lumen of capillaries and arterioles, which causes an increase in blood pressure. A person excretes about 1.5 liters of urine per day, with a lack of vasopressin, which inhibits the separation of urine, a person develops diabetes when the amount of urine increases to 4-5 liters.

Antidiuretic hormone causes a decrease in urination by increasing reabsorption in the convoluted tubules and reducing urine filtration due to vasopressin.

Thyroid gland

On the lower front surface of the neck is the thyroid gland, weighing about 25 g, secretes the hormone – thyroxine. If it is produced in a normal amount – a person is mobile, energetic, with a correct and quick reaction to external stimuli.

When there is too much hormone, the metabolism increases sharply, the excitability of the body increases, the eyes sparkle feverishly, the heartbeat quickens – this is Graves’ disease. If the gland produces very little hormone, the vitality decreases, lethargy, drowsiness, apathy sets in, the speed of mental activity is disturbed, memory weakens. The appearance of a person also changes – the face becomes puffy, the figure is overweight (myxedema). Such an influence of the thyroid gland on vitality gave reason to call it the “gland of creativity.”

Under the influence of thyroid stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland absorbs iodine and uses it for the synthesis of its hormones. In childhood, with insufficient secretion of thyroxin, dwarf growth, an ugly body structure, mental retardation, i.e., are observed. all signs of cretinism. In some areas where there is little iodine in drinking water, a disease occurs in which the thyroid gland increases from a slight swelling to an ugly goiter, weighing more than 1 kg. This is the so-called endemic – local goiter. Iron, seeking to compensate for the lack of iodine for the synthesis of hormones, increases its size. (On the effect of iodine on the functioning of the thyroid gland, see above.).

Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism occupy a leading place among thyroid diseases, for the treatment of which, with a lack of hormones, replacement therapy with synthetic drugs is used, their long-term use leads to drug dependence and the manifestation of side symptoms.

It has been established that apiproducts affect the thyroid gland directly through the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, especially since they are natural, safe, and not addictive.

Hypothyroidism

Reduced thyroid function – due to low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood for various reasons. A program of rehabilitation with apiproducts is proposed, which is carried out for 3 months. in the form of two stages: preparatory – 1.5 months. and the main – also 1.5 months.

Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)

Develops with an increase in thyroid hormones (Basedow-Graves disease – diffuse toxic goiter), accompanied by tachycardia, increased blood pressure, sweating, tremor.

Worries about weakness, irritability, insomnia, weight loss, increased blood glucose, diffuse or nodular goiter appears. In addition to drug therapy (methimazole, mercazolil, etc.), the use of apiphytoproducts is recommended, which contributes to the normalization of hormones, basal metabolism, and has a positive effect on the nervous and cardiovascular systems.

It should be noted that the applied apiproduction in hypo- and hyperthyroidism coincides, and possibly because apiproduction has a regulatory effect on the activity of the thyroid gland, increases or decreases its function, acting on different mechanisms of pathogenesis in the development of diseases.

About the program:

Taking Tentorium apiphytoproducts has the most favorable effect on the functional state of the endocrine system, normalizing hormone levels, improving nervous regulation and optimizing blood circulation.

Moreover, it is amazing that this happens against the background of an increase in the immune defense of the body in general and the endocrine glands in particular.

Thyroid, pancreas and adrenal glands get a real chance for long-term and effective work of your body.

The program includes the following Tentorium products:

It is recommended to drink the gastrointestinal tract cleansing program, Extra-Befungin, before taking this program.

It is recommended to drink 1.5-2 liters of water daily during the program.

treatment of the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland surgery in St. Petersburg, price

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Description

Areas of work of the surgical (endocrinological) department

• Surgical treatment of diseases of the thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal glands.
• Widespread use of methods of non-surgical treatment of thyroid nodules (interstitial destruction using ethanol, laser radiation, radiofrequency ablation).
• Conservative treatment of patients with diabetes mellitus, pathology of the thyroid gland and adrenal glands.
• Thyroid fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNA).

The main recent achievements of the doctors of the department

• Our department is the only one in the North-West region that performs video-assisted and endoscopic operations on the thyroid and parathyroid glands.

• All patients admitted for treatment before surgery on the thyroid gland undergo an ultrasound examination with power Doppler mapping using expert-class equipment. The surgeons of the center are proficient in the technique of ultrasound of the thyroid gland and conduct the study on their own, which allows you to clearly plan the scope of the surgical intervention and prevent possible complications. If necessary, during the operation, patients undergo an intraoperative ultrasound examination of the thyroid gland using a mobile ultrasound scanner.

• All operations on the thyroid and parathyroid glands are performed with mandatory visualization of the recurrent laryngeal nerves. Intraoperative monitoring of laryngeal nerve function is widely used (Inomed C2 devices, Germany, Medtronic NIM 3.0, USA).

• Over 5,500 endocrine surgeries are performed in the department per year, including more than 2,000 surgeries for thyroid cancer, about 200 laparoscopic surgeries for diseases of the adrenal gland, more than 800 surgeries for primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism. More than 200 operations are performed on pediatric patients. In terms of the number of operations on the thyroid gland, the endocrine service ranks first in Russia and Europe. Every year, the clinic receives patients from more than 80 regions of Russia and several hundred cities.

• All operations are performed using modern medical technologies, which allow to reduce the duration of treatment and the patient’s stay in the hospital to 2-3 days.

Guidelines for further development

1. 1. Continuous improvement of the educational level of medical specialists working in the department, development and implementation of modern medical technologies in practice.
2. 2. Combined treatment of malignant tumors of the endocrine system.
3. 3. Improving the methods of preoperative diagnosis of malignant tumors using FAB, core biopsy, immunohistochemical methods.
4. 4. Introduction into clinical practice of modern protocols for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors.
5. 5. Increasing the number of endovideoscopic surgeries for diseases of the endocrine organs.
6. 6. Further development of combined minimally invasive methods for the treatment of nodular toxic and non-toxic goiter.

Branch structure

• The surgical (endocrinological) department for 47 beds is located in the main building of the Clinic, on the 2nd and 3rd floors. The department has comfortable 1,2,3-bed rooms with all amenities. In the wards – a separate telephone, TV, shower, air conditioning. The department has free Internet (Wi-Fi network) for patients and visitors of the department. Three meals a day are provided.

• The department consists of 17 endocrinologist surgeons (4 surgeons have a specialization in pediatric surgery; all surgeons have a specialization in ultrasound diagnostics, oncology), 3 therapists, 4 endocrinologists, specialists in ultrasound diagnostics. Among the employees of the department there are doctors and candidates of medical sciences, doctors of the highest qualification category. The doctors of the center have been trained in the leading clinics of endocrine surgery in the USA, Germany, Italy, France, Japan, and South Korea.

• The Department of Endocrine Surgery performs operations on the thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands not only on a paid basis, but also at the expense of the federal budget, i. e. free for patients.

The clinic for compliance with the requirements of the GOST R ISO 9001-2015 standard in relation to all types of services provided by the clinic annually undergoes a procedure for confirming the compliance of the quality management system. The presence of such a voluntary certificate in many countries is a sign of the quality of services provided to the consumer, an additional guarantee of reliability and professional competence not only at the national, but also at the international level.

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