What are the key organs in the endocrine system. How do hormones like vitamin D and cholecystokinin affect our health. What roles do the skin, liver, kidneys, and digestive tract play in hormone production.

The Skin, Liver, and Kidneys: Vitamin D Production Powerhouses

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs that produce and regulate hormones in the body. While many people are familiar with major endocrine glands like the thyroid and pancreas, other organs play crucial roles in hormone production and regulation. Let’s explore how the skin, liver, and kidneys work together to produce one of the body’s most important hormones: vitamin D.

The Vitamin D Synthesis Process

Vitamin D production is a multi-step process involving several organs:

1. Skin: When exposed to ultraviolet rays from the sun, the skin converts a cholesterol-based molecule into vitamin D.
2. Liver: The vitamin D from the skin undergoes its first chemical transformation in the liver.
3. Kidneys: The final conversion occurs in the kidneys, where vitamin D becomes calcitriol, its active form.

This collaborative effort results in the production of calcitriol, which plays a vital role in maintaining normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. But what exactly does vitamin D do for our bodies?

The Many Functions of Vitamin D

Contrary to popular belief, vitamin D is not actually a vitamin, but a prohormone – a substance the body converts into a hormone. Its functions extend far beyond bone health:

• Calcium absorption: Helps the body absorb calcium, promoting strong bones and teeth.
• Immune system support: Regulates immune function and may help prevent autoimmune diseases.
• Neurotransmitter regulation: Assists in the production of adrenaline, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the brain.
• Mood stabilization: Low vitamin D levels have been linked to an increased risk of depression.

Is it possible to have too much or too little vitamin D? Both extremes can lead to health issues. Low levels can result in weakened bones, compromised immune function, and increased risk of various diseases. Excessive vitamin D, while rare, can cause hypercalcemia, leading to confusion, constipation, and other symptoms.

The Digestive Tract: An Unexpected Endocrine Powerhouse

When we think of the digestive system, we often focus on its role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients. However, this complex system is also a major player in the endocrine world. In fact, the digestive tract is considered the largest endocrine-related organ system in the body.

Cholecystokinin: The Multitasking Digestive Hormone

One of the key hormones produced by the digestive system is cholecystokinin (CCK). This fascinating hormone, once known as pancreozymin due to its effects on the pancreas, has a wide range of functions:

• Digestion regulation: CCK slows the emptying of the stomach and stimulates bile production in the liver, aiding in fat digestion.
• Appetite control: It plays a role in signaling fullness, helping to regulate food intake.
• Neurological effects: CCK is also produced by certain neurons in the brain and may be involved in anxiety and panic disorders.

How does cholecystokinin accomplish these diverse tasks? The hormone has receptors throughout the central nervous system and gut, allowing it to influence multiple bodily functions. Its primary production site is in the I-cells lining the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.

The Pancreas: A Dual-Function Organ

The pancreas is a unique organ that serves both exocrine and endocrine functions. As part of the digestive system, it produces enzymes that help break down food. However, its role in the endocrine system is equally crucial.

Insulin and Glucagon: The Blood Sugar Regulators

The pancreas produces two primary hormones that work in tandem to regulate blood sugar levels:

• Insulin: Produced by beta cells, insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream, lowering blood sugar levels.
• Glucagon: Produced by alpha cells, glucagon signals the liver to release stored glucose, raising blood sugar levels when they’re too low.

How do these hormones maintain blood sugar balance? When blood glucose levels rise after a meal, the pancreas releases insulin. This prompts cells to absorb glucose, bringing blood sugar levels back to normal. Conversely, when blood sugar drops (such as between meals or during exercise), the pancreas secretes glucagon, causing the liver to release stored glucose.

The Liver: More Than Just a Detoxifier

While the liver is often associated with detoxification, it plays a significant role in hormone regulation and production. Its contributions to the endocrine system are diverse and essential for overall health.

The Liver’s Endocrine Functions

The liver’s endocrine-related tasks include:

• Hormone activation: As mentioned earlier, the liver is crucial in the vitamin D synthesis process.
• Hormone inactivation: It breaks down and eliminates hormones that are no longer needed, helping maintain hormonal balance.
• Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) production: The liver produces IGF-1 in response to growth hormone, which plays a role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults.
• Angiotensinogen production: This protein is part of the renin-angiotensin system, which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

How does the liver manage these diverse endocrine functions? Its unique position in the circulatory system allows it to process blood from the digestive tract, metabolize various substances, and release them back into the bloodstream as needed.

The Kidneys: Balancing Act Beyond Filtration

The kidneys are well-known for their role in filtering blood and producing urine, but their endocrine functions are equally important for maintaining body homeostasis.

Key Hormones Produced by the Kidneys

The kidneys produce several hormones that regulate various bodily functions:

• Erythropoietin (EPO): Stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
• Renin: Part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
• Calcitriol: The active form of vitamin D, as discussed earlier.

How do these hormones impact our health? Erythropoietin ensures a steady supply of oxygen-carrying red blood cells, while renin helps maintain proper blood pressure. Calcitriol, as we’ve seen, is crucial for calcium absorption and bone health.

The Skin: More Than Just a Protective Barrier

While we’ve touched on the skin’s role in vitamin D production, its endocrine functions extend beyond this vital task. The skin is not only our largest organ but also an important part of the endocrine system.

The Skin’s Endocrine Functions

The skin’s endocrine-related activities include:

• Vitamin D synthesis: As discussed, the skin initiates the vitamin D production process.
• Steroid hormone production: The skin can produce and metabolize various steroid hormones.
• Melatonin production: While primarily associated with the pineal gland, the skin can also produce melatonin, which plays a role in circadian rhythms and acts as an antioxidant.

How does the skin perform these endocrine functions? Its large surface area and exposure to environmental factors like sunlight make it uniquely suited for these tasks. Additionally, the skin contains numerous receptors for various hormones, allowing it to respond to and participate in endocrine signaling.

The Endocrine System: A Complex Network of Collaboration

As we’ve explored, the endocrine system extends far beyond the traditional endocrine glands. Organs like the skin, liver, kidneys, and digestive tract play crucial roles in hormone production, regulation, and metabolism. This complex network of collaboration ensures that our bodies maintain homeostasis and respond appropriately to both internal and external stimuli.

The Importance of Hormonal Balance

Maintaining proper hormonal balance is crucial for overall health and well-being. Imbalances can lead to a wide range of health issues, from metabolic disorders to mood disturbances. Understanding the diverse roles of these endocrine-related organs can help us appreciate the complexity of our bodies and the importance of maintaining overall health.

Are there ways to support the health of these endocrine-related organs? Indeed, there are several steps we can take:

• Maintain a balanced diet rich in nutrients that support organ function.
• Stay hydrated to support kidney function and overall health.
• Protect your skin from excessive sun exposure while still allowing for adequate vitamin D production.
• Exercise regularly to support metabolic health and hormone balance.
• Manage stress, which can impact hormone production and regulation.
• Get regular check-ups to monitor hormone levels and organ function.

By understanding and supporting the diverse functions of these endocrine-related organs, we can promote overall health and well-being. The intricate dance of hormones within our bodies is a testament to the remarkable complexity and efficiency of human physiology.

Endocrine-related Organs and Hormones | Endocrine Society

Several organs play a major role in helping the endocrine system to work well. Although these organs are not glands themselves, they do produce, store, and send out hormones that help the body to function properly and maintain a healthy balance. 

Skin Liver and Kidneys 

The skin, liver and kidneys work together to synthesize 1,25-diydroxy vitamin D (calcitriol), the active form of vitamin D, which helps maintain normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. In the skin, a molecule made from cholesterol is converted to vitamin D by exposure to ultraviolet rays from the sun. Vitamin D undergoes further chemical changes, first in the liver and then in the kidneys, to become calcitriol. Calcitriol acts on the intestine, kidneys, and bones to maintain normal levels of blood calcium and phosphorus.

Vitamin D is a hormone the kidneys produce that controls blood calcium concentration and impacts the immune system. It is also known as calcitriol, ergocalciferol, calcidiol and cholecalciferol. Of those, calcidiol is the form doctors most commonly focus on when measuring vitamin D levels in the blood. often-misunderstood “vitamin” is not a vitamin — it is a prohormone. Prohormones are substances that the body converts to a hormone.

In fact, unlike other vitamins, only about 10 percent of the vitamin D the body needs come from food (such as dairy products and oily fish), and the rest the body makes for itself. The body makes vitamin D in a chemical reaction that occurs when sunlight hits the skin. This reaction produces cholecalciferol, and the liver converts it to calcidiol. The kidneys then convert the substance to calcitriol, which is the active form of the hormone in the body. 

Vitamin D has its effects by binding to a protein (called the vitamin D receptor). This receptor is present in nearly every cell and affects many different body processes. Researchers have found that vitamin D helps regulate adrenaline, noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine), and dopamine production in the brain; as well as helping to protect from serotonin depletion. For this reason, low vitamin D levels increase an individual’s risk of depression significantly. A better understanding of vitamin D function is necessary to fully comprehend how it is linked to so many health concerns. 

What Does Vitamin D Do? 

Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium so that blood calcium levels are at the ideal point. This helps enable the mineralization of bone that is required for strong, healthy bones. Yet this is just one function of the hormone. 

Problems Associated with Vitamin D 

Too little vitamin D means the bones will not be able to grow strong, leading to problems like rickets for children or osteoporosis for adults. Due to the weakening of bones, individuals with low vitamin D levels are more prone to falling. Low vitamin D levels can also cause a poorly functioning immune system, cardiovascular disease, depression, development of diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. It has also been linked to certain types of cancer. Even though people rarely struggle with dangerously high levels of vitamin D. If your body has too much of the vitamin it can also cause calcium levels in the blood to increase, causing hypercalcinemia. This condition can trigger confusion, depression, headaches, constipation, nausea, and feelings of thirst. Vitamin D is a hormone, and it is best to discuss your levels with a healthcare provider, consider asking: 

• What are my vitamin D levels? What should they be? 
• How can I get more vitamin D? 
• What type of supplement is the best? 
• How much vitamin D should I be taking? 

Stomach and Small Intestines 

The digestive tract is the largest endocrine-related organ system in the body. It makes and secretes several different types of hormones that play a role in the body’s metabolism. 

Cholecystokinin, otherwise known as CCK or CCK-PZ, is a hormone that was once called pancreozymin because of its actions on the pancreas. This hormone has receptors through the central nervous system and gut, impacting several areas of the body. Its primary function is on digestion and the appetite, but new research has found other areas where this hormone impacts the body. 

Cholecystokinin is a hormone produced in the I-cells that line the duodenum. The hormone is also released by certain neurons in the brain. It seems to be involved in controlling appetite and plays a potential role in anxiety and panic disorders. 

How Does Cholecystokinin Work? 

Cholecystokinin’s most recognized function is its ability to improve digestion. The hormone reduces the rate at which food empties from the stomach, also stimulating bile production in the liver. Bile shrinks the fat droplets, enabling enzymes to more readily break them down. At the same time, cholecystokinin increases the amount of fluid and enzymes released by the pancreas, so the body better digests food. 

In addition, this hormone increases the sensation of short-term fullness, so appetite during a meal is reduced. Some evidence has found that cholecystokinin released in the brain may have an impact on anxiety. However, this particular cholecystokinin function needs further study. 

Potential Problems With the Cholecystokinin Hormone 

Individuals who have cholecystokinin levels that are too high suffer no known ill effects. In fact, the lack of cholecystokinin side effects sparked research into using it as a weight-loss drug option, because the hormone has an appetite-reducing result. 

Too little cholecystokinin can have an adverse outcome on the body. Obese people have been found to have less than the average levels of cholecystokinin, which may contribute to problems with increased appetite and further difficulty with weight loss. In addition, variations with the cholecystokinin gene have been connected to obesity, but the reason for this is not yet known. 

While research is still underway to determine what impact cholecystokinin has on obesity and health, your healthcare provider can help you determine if your hormones may be impacting your health.  

Gastrin is a hormone the stomach produces that stimulates the release of gastric acid. It is located in the G cells in the lining of the stomach and upper small intestine. When you eat, gastrin stimulates the release of gastric acid, an important part of the digestive process. 

How Does Gastrin Do? 

Gastrin is directly responsible for the release of gastric acid, which breaks down the proteins in the food you eat. Gastric acid also helps the body absorb some of the vitamins in the food and kills much of the bacteria naturally present on food. This helps protect the gut from infection. 

Problems Associated with Gastrin 

Improper gastrin levels can instigate problems with digestion. Too much gastrin hormone is associated with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, a syndrome caused by a gastrin-secreting tumor in the digestive system. This can release too much acid, which can create ulcers in the stomach and small intestine. If stomach acid levels are too high, it can also lead to diarrhea. 

High levels of gastrin cells and circulating gastrin hormone can also occur if the pH of the stomach is too high, which can happen when the lining of the stomach is damaged, preventing it from releasing acid. This problem can also take place when an individual is taking antacid medications due to heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) 

Low gastrin levels are rare. When low levels do occur, the condition can increase the risk of infection in the digestive system and also limits the stomach’s ability to absorb nutrients. 

Because gastrin is a hormone, discuss any concerns with a qualified endocrinologist. If you are worried that high gastrin levels are causing digestive symptoms, consider asking: 

• Is gastrin responsible for my symptoms? 
• What can I do to improve gastrin levels? 
• How can I manage my digestive symptoms? 
• What are the risks of these gastrin levels? 

Ghrelin is central to appetite and the release of growth hormone. Ghrelin is produced in the stomach and small intestine, with a little bit of the hormone released in the pancreas and brain. It has been called the “hunger hormone” because of its role in controlling appetite, but that is just one of its functions.  

How Does Ghrelin Do? 

Ghrelin serves many purposes, but the one most talked about is its ability to stimulate appetite, causing an individual to digest more food and store more fat. In fact, when given artificially to humans, the amount of food intake increases by 30%. The hormone plays a role in the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that controls appetite, and may act on regions of the brain that control reward processing. 

Ghrelin also plays a role in the pituitary gland’s function, where ghrelin receptors trigger the stimulation of the hormone. It appears to help control insulin release and plays a protective role in cardiovascular health. This well-rounded hormone has a job in many different bodily systems. 

Problems Associated with Ghrelin 

Because ghrelin affects appetite, it can impact weight loss, especially when someone diets. When someone is strictly controlling calories, ghrelin levels increase. This, then, causes the rebound of the pounds lost that happens right after a diet for many people. People who struggle with anorexia nervosa may also have high ghrelin levels, which occurs as part of the body’s natural response to starvation. 

For patients with Prader-Willi syndrome, ghrelin levels in the blood are high. This is believed to be the reason why these patients struggle with severe obesity and extreme hunger. The ghrelin levels increase before obesity, so it is not caused by the higher body weight. 

On the other hand, patients who have gastric bypass surgery can have lower ghrelin levels than those who lose weight naturally. This may be why gastric bypass surgery, if the eating plan is followed strictly, has long-term effectiveness regarding weight loss. 

If you are trying to control your hunger and weight, understanding ghrelin function may help. Consider asking: 

• How can I naturally control ghrelin? 
• Are ghrelin blocker products an effective way to control hunger? 
• Are my ghrelin levels responsible for my weight struggle? 
• How can I lose weight without impacting ghrelin levels negatively? 

Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) helps regulate your appetite, especially after eating. It also helps enhance the production of insulin. GLP-1 is produced in the gut. The cells in the small intestine are the main source of GLP-1. The pancreas and nervous system also produce GLP-1, but in smaller amounts. GLP-1 helps you feel full during and between meals by working with the brain and by slowly emptying the stomach. 

How Does Your Body Use GLP-1? 

Eating food helps stimulate your body to release GLP-1. The hormone can be found as soon as 10 minutes after eating. GLP-1 stays in your body hours after eating and circulates in the blood. 

What Problems Can Occur with GLP-1? 

Cases of in which patients have too much GLP-1 are extremely rare. However, medications have been created that act similar to GLP-1 in blood circulation to help control glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes. GLP-1 levels may also increase after bariatric surgery. If the body does not produce enough GLP-1, it may increase the odds of becoming obese. The main role of GLP-1 is to regulate your appetite after a meal. If your body isn’t releasing enough of this hormone, you may find yourself overeating or snacking between meals. However more research is needed to confirm this. People who are dieting or losing weight naturally may also experience low GLP-1 levels. 

If you are dieting and trying to control your weight, understanding the role of GLP-1 may help. Consider asking your healthcare provider: 

• If I am dieting, how can I prevent myself from overeating or snacking between meals? 
• How can GLP-1 help if I have type 2 diabetes? 
• If my GLP-1 levels are low, is it responsible for my weight struggles? 

←More about Medications to Treat Diabetes 

Leptin is one of the hormones directly connected to body fat and obesity. Released from the fat cells located in adipose tissues, sends signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Leptin hormone helps regulate and alter long-term food intake and energy expenditure, not just from one meal to the next. The primary design of leptin is to help the body maintain its weight. Because it comes from fat cells, leptin amounts are directly connected to an individual’s amount of body fat. If the individual adds body fat, leptin levels will increase. If an individual lowers body fat percentages, the leptin will decrease as well. 

What Does Leptin Do? 

Leptin is sometimes called the satiety hormone. It helps inhibit hunger and regulate energy balance, so the body does not trigger hunger responses when it does not need energy. However, when levels of the hormone fall, which happens when an individual loses weight, the lower levels can trigger huge increases in appetite and food cravings. This, in turn, can make weight loss more difficult. 

Potential Problems with Leptin 

When the body is functioning properly, excess fat cells will produce leptin, which will trigger the hypothalamus to lower the appetite, allowing the body to dip into the fat stores to feed itself. Unfortunately, when someone is obese, that individual will have too much leptin in the blood. This can cause a lack of sensitivity to the hormone, a condition known as leptin resistance. Because the individual keeps eating, the fat cells produce more leptin to signal the feeling of satiety, leading to increased leptin levels. 

Low levels of leptin are rare but can occasionally occur. For a few patients, a condition known as congenital leptin deficiency keeps the body from producing leptin. Without leptin, the body thinks it has no body fat, and this signals intense, uncontrolled hunger and food intake. This often manifests in severe childhood obesity and delayed puberty. The treatment for leptin deficiency is leptin injections. If you suspect you or your child has problems with leptin levels, consider asking: 

• What are my leptin levels, and how do they rate? 
• How can I handle the cravings that come when my leptin levels decrease during weight loss? 
• Does my child need treatment for leptin deficiency? 

After eating, the hormone peptide YY (PYY) will be produced by the small intestine and released into your bloodstream. PYY communicates to your brain that you are full and decreases your appetite. The amount of PPY released depends on the type and quantity of food eaten. 

How Does Your Body Use PYY?

 After it is released in the bloodstream, PYY binds to receptors, or cells that receive signals, in the brain. It also functions by slowing down the movement of food in the digestive tract. The body produces PYY when there is food in the digestive tract, especially food that contains fat and protein. Eating high calorie foods causes your body to produce more PYY than eating low calorie foods. PYY levels are the highest two hours after eating but eventually PPY decreases. Most people have low levels of PYY after not eating for a long period of time. 

What Problems Can Occur with PYY?  

Although it is uncommon, very high levels of PYY will decrease your appetite. High PYY levels are often associated with conditions that may lead to weight loss such as eating disorders, inflammatory bowel disease and certain cancers. Low PYY levels mean that you may experience an increase in appetite. Lower PYY levels may contribute to weight gain, however it is not believed to be the main cause of obesity. It is very rare to have a genetic or endocrine disorder of PYY. 

Other Organs

When blood pressure rises, the heart releases A-type natriuretic peptide and B-type natriuretic peptide. These hormones help lower blood pressure by relaxing the arterioles, which transport blood from arteries to capillaries. It also lowers blood pressure by preventing the secretion of renin and aldosterone, as well as the reabsorption of sodium ions by the kidneys. These actions reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the circulatory system. 

In addition to being required for bodily movements and participating in the regulation of body temperature, skeletal muscle commonly uptakes over 70% of glucose after a meal. Another key example of endocrine function of skeletal muscle includes angiogenic factors. VEGF, for example, can act on skeletal muscle and help increase blood flow to skeletal muscle, allowing for proper oxygen, nutrient, and hormone delivery to this tissue. 

Adipose tissue is typically known as body fat. Adipose tissue can be found all around the body. It is located under the skin, between muscles, and even around the organs. Adipose tissue contains many other cells that produce hormones as a response to signals from the rest of the body’s organs. Many other hormones are also released from adipose tissue and are responsible for different functions such as: 

Angiotensin– which helps control blood pressure  
Aromatase– which is involved in sex hormone metabolism  
Adiponectin– which helps improve the body’s sensitivity to insulin and protect against type 2 diabetes  

Typically, too much adipose tissue leads to obesity, which increases the risk for type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol, heart disease, and stroke. Too little adipose tissue can be a sign of other conditions such as lipodystrophy and anorexia. 

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The endocrine system and hormones

There are many organs and glands that make up the endocrine system.

The pituitary gland is the main gland of the endocrine system. It is at the base of the brain and makes and stores many hormones that control:

• growth
• metabolism
• the making of breast milk after giving birth
• menstruation, maturing eggs and the making of estrogen by the ovaries in women
• the making of sperm and testosterone by the testicles in men
• steroid levels in the body

The hormones made by the pituitary gland also cause other endocrine glands to make or stop making other hormones. Together, the pituitary gland and hypothalamus control the endocrine system and hormone levels in the body.

Find out more about the pituitary gland.

The hypothalamus is an important part of the brain and has many jobs controlling different parts of the body. One of the jobs of the hypothalamus is to make hormones, including those that control the pituitary gland and control blood pressure. The hypothalamus reacts to changes in hormone levels in the body.

The pineal gland is a tiny gland deep in the brain that makes the hormone melatonin, which controls sleep patterns.

The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the neck in front of the upper part of the windpipe (trachea). The thyroid makes hormones that control many body functions including growth and metabolism. It also makes a hormone that controls the amount of calcium in the body.

Find out more about the thyroid.

The parathyroid glands are 4 small glands attached to the back of the thyroid. They make and release parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone helps control calcium levels in the blood. Most calcium is stored in the bones. When calcium levels in the blood are low, the parathyroid glands make PTH to get the bones to release calcium into the blood. When calcium levels in the blood are high, the parathyroid glands make less PTH, and calcium levels in the blood lower.

The thymus is a gland in the upper part of the chest, just behind the breastbone (sternum) and between the lungs. The thymus is part of the endocrine system, the lymphatic system and the immune system. The thymus makes hormones that help T cells (a type of white blood cell) to mature and function.

Find out more about the thymus.

We have 2 adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands make several hormones that control different body functions, including metabolism, heart rate, blood pressure and water and salt balance. They also make small amounts of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone.

Find out more about the adrenal glands and adrenal gland hormones.

The pancreas is a slim, long organ in the upper left part of the abdomen that sits under the stomach between the liver and spleen. The pancreas is part of the digestive and endocrine systems. The pancreas makes enzymes that are released directly into the small intestine to help digest food. It also makes hormones that help with digestion and control blood sugar (glucose) levels (such as insulin). The hormones are made in small groups of specialized cells in the pancreas called islets. This part of the pancreas that makes hormones is called the endocrine pancreas.

Find out more about the pancreas.

The ovaries are part of a woman’s reproductive system (female reproductive system). Women have 2 ovaries where immature eggs develop into mature eggs (ova). The ovaries also make the hormones estrogen and progesterone. The ovaries are deep inside a woman’s pelvis, on both sides of the uterus (womb) close to the ends of the fallopian tubes.

Find out more about the ovaries.

The testicles (testes) are a part of a man’s reproductive system (male reproductive system). A man has 2 testicles. The testicles make sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.

Find out more about the testicles.

The neuroendocrine system is made up of special cells called neuroendocrine cells. They are scattered throughout the body. Neuroendocrine cells act like nerve cells (neurons) and also make hormones like cells of the endocrine system (endocrine cells). Neuroendocrine cells receive messages (signals) from the nervous system and respond by making and releasing hormones.

Neuroendocrine cells are scattered along the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are found in the gallbladder, lungs, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid glands, pancreas and inner layer of the adrenal gland (adrenal medulla).

Find out more about the neuroendocrine system.

The heart and kidneys also play a role in the endocrine system. They make hormones that help control blood pressure and the amount of blood inside the body (called blood volume). The kidneys also make a hormone that makes the body absorb calcium from the food we eat.

Some hormones can cause cancer to grow and some cancers make hormones that lead to problems in the body.

Estrogen and progesterone are female sex hormones. They can cause breast cancer cells to grow. Some types of breast cancer cells have estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on their surface or inside the cell. When hormones attach to these receptors, they can cause the cancer cells to grow and divide.

Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer will have hormone receptor status testing to see if they may benefit from treatment with hormonal therapy.

Some types of cancers use hormones to grow, such as breast and prostate cancers. So doctors sometimes use hormonal therapy to treat cancer. Hormonal therapy is a treatment that adds, blocks or removes hormones to stop or slow the growth of cancer cells that need hormones to grow. Find out more about hormonal therapy.

Some people with cancer develop a condition called paraneoplastic syndrome. A paraneoplastic syndrome is a group of symptoms that develop when cancer cells release chemicals that can change how other organs and tissues work. For example, some types of lung cancer make hormones that prevent the kidneys from working properly so they can’t remove extra calcium from the blood. This causes a condition of high blood calcium levels called hypercalcemia.

Sometimes you can get artificial hormones from outside sources, such as drugs or chemicals in the environment. Hormones from outside sources can raise or lower your hormone levels in the body. Sometimes, changes in hormone levels can raise or lower the risk of cancer. Artificial hormones include:

• birth control pills and other hormonal contraceptives
• hormonal replacement therapy
• anabolic steroids
• endocrine disruptors (for example, bisphenol A found in some plastics)
• Find out more about artificial hormones and how they may increase the risk of cancer.

Cancer can develop anywhere in the body, and some types of cancer start in the organs and cells of the endocrine system. These cancers may increase hormone levels, which can cause problems in the body. Cancers of the endocrine system include:

• neuroendocrine tumours (NETs)
• some brain and pituitary gland tumours
• thyroid cancer
• parathyroid cancer
• thymus cancer
• adrenal gland cancer
• pancreatic islet cell cancer
• some ovarian cancers
• some testicular cancers

• American Cancer Society. What is a Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor?. 2015: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/gastrointestinal-carcinoid-tumor/about/what-is-gastrointestinal-carcinoid.html.

• Beatrix M, Lopes S
  . The brain as an endocrine organ (including the pineal gland). Mete O, Asa SL (eds.). Endocrine Pathology. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 2016: 11: 283-314.

• Cancer Research UK. The Hormone System and Cancer. Cancer Research UK; 2014: http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer/body-systems-and-cancer/the-hormone-system-and-cancer.

• Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB. Human Anatomy. 7th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings; 2012.

• Young B, O’Dowd G, Woodford P (eds.). Wheaters’s Functional Histology. 6th ed. Churchill Livingston; 2014.

Fenaret Clinic – Endocrine system. What do you need to know about it and why is it so important?

Endocrine system. What do you need to know about it and why is it so important?

Author: Olga Anatolyevna Tachkova, Associate Professor, Candidate of Medical Sciences, endocrinologist of the highest category

In recent years, endocrine system diseases have been growing all over the world. In a sad list of the most common hormonal ailments, thyroid disease ranks second after diabetes.

Thyroid gland – intelligence and emotions

The endocrine system is one of the most important in our body. It provides the potential for procreation, promotes the development and growth of the body, and is also responsible for the creation, use and conservation of energy. Due to the hormones produced by its glands, the body regulates the activity of all organs and systems.

It is the thyroid gland that determines how fast calories will be burned and how fast the heart will beat. The thyroid gland affects the development of human intellectual functions throughout life. In particular, such processes as acquiring new skills, memorizing new information, getting used to new conditions, as well as an intense intellectual thought process – proceed with the obligatory participation of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones control not only the intellectual part of the brain, but also the emotional .

So important iodine

According to the World Health Organization, diseases associated with iodine deficiency are among the most common on Earth. According to statistics, 2 billion people on the planet consume insufficient amounts of iodine, 740 million have an enlarged thyroid gland, and 40 million have mental retardation, which has developed as a result of iodine deficiency.

In chronic iodine deficiency, the thyroid gland begins to gradually increase, trying to compensate for the lack of iodine in the body. This can lead to goiter. Nodules appear in the body of the thyroid gland, which sometimes require surgical intervention.

Often, having learned that thyroid diseases are somehow connected with a lack of iodine in the body, people begin to consume it in large quantities. However, thyroid problems are not always caused by iodine deficiency. There is also an increased amount of this substance in the body. There are many diseases of the thyroid gland and nuances in the treatment, respectively, too.

Salt can be useful

One of the most effective ways to prevent iodine deficiency is the use of iodized salt. Five to six grams of the product per day provides the daily requirement for this trace element. Iodized salt, contrary to popular belief, does not affect the taste of cooked foods, but it has been proven that such a simple precaution will reliably protect against iodine deficiency and the formation of goiter.

But, of course, iodized salt is not always enough. Pregnant, lactating women, adolescents and children need additional doses of the drug, which will be prescribed by the attending physician.

By the way, thyroid disorders are 20 times more common in women than in men! With age, the risk of thyroid disease increases in everyone, but in women between 40 and 65 years old, it increases many times over.

Prevention of iodine deficiency

According to WHO, the recommended daily allowance of iodine for a person is:

50 mcg – infants from birth to 1 year up to 16 years

150 mcg – adults

200 mcg – lactating and pregnant women

Mini-Cheat Sheet

Signs of malfunction thyroid gland:

Increased fatigue and chronic fatigue;

Increased or decreased heartbeat;

Weight gain or loss;

Mood swings, increased anxiety, tearfulness;

Problems with the reproductive system (difficulty conceiving, menstrual irregularities, lack of sexual desire).

Chills, slight fever;

Skin, hair and nail problems;

Constipation – with a decrease in the hormonal activity of the thyroid gland; diarrhea – with an increase.

Cognitive problems: poor memory, difficulty concentrating;

Throat and… voice (due to an increase in the size of the thyroid gland, pain in its area, hoarseness of the voice, snoring, swelling in the neck area may appear).

Important!

Thyroid diseases are often asymptomatic. Sometimes people confuse symptoms with other disorders or simply do not attach much importance to them. Therefore, every resident of a big city, regardless of whether or not any of the listed symptoms are observed, needs an annual examination by an endocrinologist!

Treatment of diseases of the endocrine system | Diamed

Treatment of diseases of the endocrine system is associated with the treatment of abnormalities in the functioning of the thyroid and pancreas, pituitary gland or in the production of hormones.

The endocrine system of the body is one of the most important systems, thanks to which the entire body works properly. Most of the diseases that occur in the body, at first glance, have nothing to do with the endocrine system, appear precisely because a sufficient number of secrets that affect the functioning of the body are not released.

The system itself consists of several main glands located in different parts of the body. The work of the glands is to produce secrets in a timely manner. The latter, in turn, penetrate directly into the blood in order to have a beneficial effect on the work of almost the entire organism and on many of its important functions.

The hormones produced by the endocrine glands are the chemical “messengers” of the human body. In order for hormonal balance to take place, the body must be in excellent condition. In other words, such a delicate balance can be disturbed by various factors, which abound in the modern world.

Any stress, the appearance of various kinds of infection in the body, as well as other adverse factors, contribute to imbalance and can lead to endocrine system disruption, can cause a loss of hormonal balance.

Very often, many do not even suspect that some diseases have arisen against the backdrop of a malfunction of the endocrine system of the body. As diseases of the endocrine system are diseases of the pituitary gland, diseases of the thyroid and pancreas. The most common are thyroid diseases.

Types of endocrine diseases

Today in medicine there is a wide variety of endocrine diseases, as well as their consequences, which require serious treatment in the future.

Consider these diseases:

• Diabetes mellitus. This disease is characterized by a process in which the body does not produce enough insulin, or it is produced, but its biological activity is weak. There are several types of diabetes mellitus, on which the method of its treatment will depend in the future. It is quite difficult to prevent diabetes mellitus, while the disease can appear at the gene level.
• Diseases related to the thyroid gland. This may be characterized by the appearance of nodules on the thyroid gland. Depending on the severity of the disease, treatment may be prescribed. Sometimes surgery is also necessary.
• Violation of the process of puberty. In this case, there are some characteristic signs of abnormal puberty. A premature process may occur, or vice versa, puberty may occur with a delay.
• Hirsutism. This disease is typical for women, when there is an increase in the growth of coarse, dark and long hair in women in a male pattern. In this case, many women try to get rid of such an appearance, without thinking that the problem must be solved from the inside. In other words, women do not understand that this disease must be treated, and not just get rid of unpleasant hair.
• Virilization. Under the influence of male hormones, a woman has some features that are characteristic of the male sex. If such a disease is not started to be treated, then the process will not stop on its own. For treatment, drugs are used that contribute to the establishment of hormonal levels.
• Impotence. A disease that is characteristic of the male sex. Namely, a man observes some disorders of the reproductive system. In this case, it is also necessary to undergo an examination and draw conclusions about the appointment of treatment.
• Obesity. Such a disease of the body provides for the appearance of increased body weight. This is due to the fact that the body cannot process enough substances, as a result of which the excess is deposited in the form of fat. In simple terms, normal metabolism is disrupted in the body. The patient can eat quite a bit, but it is not possible to maintain weight, let alone lose weight.
• Infertility. As a rule, such a disease manifests itself precisely when a woman or a man decides to become parents. Recently, it is the endocrine system, namely, violations in its work, that can cause the development of infertility.
• Amenorrhea. This disease belongs to the gynecological type of diseases. In this case, amenorrhea is characterized by the absence of menstrual flow for 5-6 months in women whose age is in the range from 16 to 45 years. Several treatments can be used to treat this problem.
• Menopause. This process occurs as a result of the cessation of menstruation in women, since the ovaries almost completely stop performing their function.
• Osteoporosis. This disease is characterized by loss of bone strength. They become very brittle and can break very quickly. Such a disease requires not only treatment, but also the maintenance of the body after the fight against the disease.

At the same time, it should be noted that only the most common diseases that can occur as a result of malfunctioning of the endocrine system are listed.

Treatment of diseases

For example, infertility or lack of menstruation, which were caused by disorders of the endocrine system, is treated with drugs that can improve the functioning of hormones, thereby improving the hormonal background. In this case, the treatment is prescribed by a gynecologist, together with an endocrinologist. The treatment process itself can be quite serious and it will not be possible to quickly restore the situation.

If we talk about osteoporosis, then the treatment is carried out exactly that is aimed at combating the underlying disease, which became the main cause of loss of bone density and the development of osteoporosis.

If the cause of the development of the disease was precisely the disruption of the endocrine system, the doctor prescribes treatment – drugs that can almost completely normalize the hormonal background. Sometimes osteoporosis can cause a deficiency in the body of substances such as calcium. In this case, it is necessary to take medications that would contain vitamin D3. Also, if a person has a disease such as osteoporosis, then it is worth using therapeutic exercises and massage for treatment. In addition, every day it is worth eating foods that would have a sufficient amount of calcium in the composition.