What is the endocrine system and how does it function. Which glands make up the endocrine system. How do hormones regulate bodily processes. What are common endocrine disorders and their effects.

The Endocrine System: An Overview of Hormonal Regulation

The endocrine system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s homeostasis through the production and secretion of hormones. These chemical messengers coordinate various bodily functions by traveling through the bloodstream to target specific organs and tissues. But how exactly does this complex system operate?

At its core, the endocrine system consists of a network of glands distributed throughout the body. These specialized organs produce hormones that act as signaling molecules, triggering specific responses in target cells. The system’s ability to monitor and adjust hormone levels ensures that the body can respond appropriately to both internal and external changes.

Key Functions of the Endocrine System

• Regulating metabolism
• Controlling growth and development
• Influencing mood and emotions
• Managing fertility and sexual function
• Regulating sleep patterns
• Maintaining blood pressure

Can hormones affect multiple bodily processes simultaneously? Indeed, hormones are multifaceted chemical messengers capable of influencing various physiological functions concurrently. For instance, cortisol, often referred to as the “stress hormone,” not only helps regulate the body’s stress response but also impacts metabolism, immune function, and blood sugar levels.

The Intricate Network of Endocrine Glands

The endocrine system comprises several glands, each with specific functions and hormone production capabilities. Understanding the role of each gland is crucial for comprehending how the body maintains balance and responds to various stimuli.

The Hypothalamus: The Master Controller

Located in the brain, the hypothalamus serves as the control center for the endocrine system. It integrates information from the nervous system to regulate hormone production throughout the body. How does the hypothalamus exert its influence? By producing releasing and inhibiting hormones that act on the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus indirectly controls numerous bodily functions, including mood, hunger, thirst, sleep patterns, and sexual behavior.

The Pituitary Gland: The Master Gland

Despite its small size, the pituitary gland plays a pivotal role in the endocrine system. Often called the “master gland,” it produces hormones that control several other endocrine glands. What makes the pituitary gland so influential? Its ability to secrete hormones that directly affect the thyroid, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes allows it to orchestrate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.

The Thyroid Gland: Metabolism Regulator

The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland, located in the neck, is responsible for producing hormones that regulate metabolism. How do thyroid hormones impact the body? By influencing the rate at which cells convert nutrients into energy, thyroid hormones affect virtually every organ system, including heart rate, body temperature, and energy levels.

Hormonal Balance and Homeostasis

The endocrine system maintains hormonal balance through a complex feedback mechanism. This process, known as homeostasis, ensures that hormone levels remain within optimal ranges. How does the body achieve this delicate balance?

The pituitary gland constantly monitors hormone levels in the bloodstream. When levels rise above a certain threshold, it signals other glands to decrease hormone production. Conversely, when hormone levels fall below optimal ranges, the pituitary gland stimulates increased production. This continuous adjustment helps maintain physiological equilibrium.

Factors Affecting Hormone Balance

• Stress
• Diet and nutrition
• Sleep patterns
• Physical activity
• Environmental factors
• Certain medications

Can external factors disrupt hormonal balance? Absolutely. Various environmental and lifestyle factors can influence hormone production and secretion. For example, chronic stress can lead to elevated cortisol levels, potentially impacting metabolism, immune function, and mood regulation.

The Role of Hormones in Growth and Development

Hormones play a crucial role in regulating growth and development throughout an individual’s lifespan. From childhood to adolescence and into adulthood, the endocrine system orchestrates complex processes that shape physical and physiological changes.

Growth Hormone: The Body’s Building Block

Produced by the pituitary gland, growth hormone is essential for normal physical development. How does growth hormone influence the body? It stimulates cell reproduction and regeneration, promotes bone and muscle growth, and regulates metabolism. During childhood and adolescence, growth hormone is particularly important for achieving normal height and body composition.

Sex Hormones: Shaping Secondary Sexual Characteristics

During puberty, the endocrine system undergoes significant changes, leading to the production of sex hormones. In females, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, while in males, the testes produce testosterone. What role do these hormones play in development? They are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development in females and deepening of the voice in males, as well as regulating reproductive functions.

Endocrine Disorders: When Hormones Go Awry

While the endocrine system generally maintains precise control over hormone levels, various disorders can disrupt this delicate balance. Endocrine disorders occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, leading to a wide range of health issues.

Diabetes: A Common Endocrine Disorder

Diabetes is one of the most prevalent endocrine disorders, affecting millions of people worldwide. What causes diabetes? This condition develops when the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin (Type 1 diabetes) or when the body becomes resistant to insulin (Type 2 diabetes). How does diabetes impact the body? It leads to elevated blood sugar levels, which can cause various complications, including cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and nerve problems if left untreated.

Thyroid Disorders: Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism

Thyroid disorders are another common category of endocrine problems. Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones, leading to symptoms such as rapid heart rate, weight loss, and anxiety. Conversely, hypothyroidism results from insufficient thyroid hormone production, causing fatigue, weight gain, and depression. How are thyroid disorders diagnosed and treated? Blood tests measuring thyroid hormone levels can identify these conditions, and treatment typically involves medication to either suppress or supplement thyroid hormone production.

The Endocrine System and Stress Response

The endocrine system plays a vital role in the body’s response to stress. When faced with a stressful situation, the hypothalamus activates the “fight or flight” response, triggering a cascade of hormonal changes throughout the body.

The HPA Axis: Coordinating Stress Response

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a complex network of interactions between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands. How does this axis regulate stress response? When stressed, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then signals the adrenal glands to release cortisol, the primary stress hormone.

Cortisol: The Stress Hormone

Cortisol plays a crucial role in the body’s stress response. What effects does cortisol have on the body? It increases blood sugar levels, enhances the brain’s use of glucose, and increases the availability of substances that repair tissues. However, chronic elevation of cortisol can lead to various health problems, including weight gain, impaired immune function, and mood disorders.

The Endocrine System and Reproductive Health

The endocrine system is intricately linked to reproductive health in both males and females. Hormones produced by various glands regulate sexual development, fertility, and reproductive processes throughout life.

Female Reproductive Hormones

In females, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and support pregnancy. How do these hormones influence reproductive health? Estrogen promotes the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and prepares the uterus for potential pregnancy. Progesterone maintains the uterine lining and supports early pregnancy.

Male Reproductive Hormones

In males, the testes produce testosterone, the primary male sex hormone. What role does testosterone play in male health? It is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, sperm production, and maintenance of muscle mass and bone density. Low testosterone levels, a condition known as hypogonadism, can lead to decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, and other health issues.

The endocrine system’s intricate network of glands and hormones plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health and well-being. From regulating metabolism and growth to coordinating stress responses and reproductive functions, hormones influence virtually every aspect of human physiology. Understanding the complexities of this system can help individuals make informed decisions about their health and seek appropriate care when endocrine disorders arise. As research in endocrinology continues to advance, new insights into hormonal regulation may lead to improved treatments and preventive strategies for endocrine-related health issues.

What Is It, Functions & Organs

Overview

What is the endocrine system?

Your endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it.

Function

What does the endocrine system do and how does it work?

Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood. Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly every process in your body, including:

• Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
• Growth and development.
• Emotions and mood.
• Fertility and sexual function.
• Sleep.
• Blood pressure.

Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can cause health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood and behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones. Illness, stress and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.

Anatomy

What are the parts of the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce hormones include:

• Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including the pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes in your body, including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.
• Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.
• Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for your metabolism (how your body uses energy).
• Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the right amount of calcium.
• Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.
• Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you to feel sleepy.
• Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.
• Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
• Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

Conditions and Disorders

What conditions and disorders affect the endocrine system?

Dozens of conditions can cause issues in the endocrine system. These conditions can lead to health problems all over the body. Some of the most common disorders are:

• Diabetes: This endocrine disorder affects the way your body uses the energy from the food you eat. Diabetes develops when the pancreas doesn’t make enough of a hormone called insulin, or insulin doesn’t work as it should.
• Thyroid disorders: Several conditions can affect the function of the thyroid gland. Hypothyroidism happens when the thyroid doesn’t produce enough hormones. Hyperthyroidism occurs when it creates too many hormones.
• Hypogonadism (low testosterone): In men, hypogonadism can cause erectile dysfunction. It can also cause memory and concentration problems, changes in muscle strength and low sex drive. It happens when the testes do not produce enough of the sex hormone testosterone.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal imbalance causes women with PCOS to have irregular periods, abnormal hair growth, excess acne and weight gain. It can lead to diabetes, increased risk of metabolic syndrome and infertility.
• Osteoporosis: When a woman’s ovaries don’t produce enough estrogen, bones become brittle and weak. Although it is more common in women, men sometimes have osteoporosis when testosterone levels get too low. People with an overactive parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism) may also have weak bones.

Chemicals called endocrine disrupters can also affect the endocrine system. These chemicals appear everywhere — in pesticides, plastics, cosmetics and even our food and water. Endocrine disrupters cause a wide range of problems throughout the body by changing how hormones send messages.

How common are these conditions?

• Diabetes: This condition is widespread. Almost 10% of people in the United States have diabetes and 27% have prediabetes.
• Thyroid disorders: About 20 million Americans have thyroid disease. Women are about five times more likely than men to develop the condition.
• Hypogonadism: About 40% of men over 45 have low testosterone. Levels of this sex hormone naturally drop as men age. Other factors, such as a man’s diet, weight and other health problems also affect testosterone levels.
• PCOS: This common condition affects about 5% to 10% of adult women in the U.S. It is a leading cause of infertility.
• Osteoporosis: More than half of adults over age 50 have osteoporosis. It is more likely to occur in women than in men.

Care

How can I keep my endocrine system healthy?

Your endocrine system needs the same things the rest of your body needs to stay healthy. You should exercise, eat right and see your healthcare provider regularly.

If you have a family history of diabetes, thyroid disorders or PCOS, talk to your provider. Managing these conditions can help you avoid a hormone imbalance that can lead to health problems.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should I call my doctor?

Some symptoms can point to a serious health condition, such as diabetes. Call your provider if you have:

• The urge to urinate (pee) a lot.
• Extreme thirst, even after you’ve had plenty of water.
• Nausea or stomach pain that doesn’t go away.
• Sudden weight loss or unexplained weight gain.
• Severe exhaustion or weakness.
• Problems with sweating too much.
• Sudden episodes of rapid heart hearts or elevated blood pressure
• Developmental or growth delays.

What Is It, Functions & Organs

Overview

What is the endocrine system?

Your endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it.

Function

What does the endocrine system do and how does it work?

Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood. Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly every process in your body, including:

• Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
• Growth and development.
• Emotions and mood.
• Fertility and sexual function.
• Sleep.
• Blood pressure.

Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can cause health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood and behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones. Illness, stress and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.

Anatomy

What are the parts of the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce hormones include:

• Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including the pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes in your body, including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.
• Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.
• Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for your metabolism (how your body uses energy).
• Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the right amount of calcium.
• Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.
• Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you to feel sleepy.
• Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.
• Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
• Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

Conditions and Disorders

What conditions and disorders affect the endocrine system?

Dozens of conditions can cause issues in the endocrine system. These conditions can lead to health problems all over the body. Some of the most common disorders are:

• Diabetes: This endocrine disorder affects the way your body uses the energy from the food you eat. Diabetes develops when the pancreas doesn’t make enough of a hormone called insulin, or insulin doesn’t work as it should.
• Thyroid disorders: Several conditions can affect the function of the thyroid gland. Hypothyroidism happens when the thyroid doesn’t produce enough hormones. Hyperthyroidism occurs when it creates too many hormones.
• Hypogonadism (low testosterone): In men, hypogonadism can cause erectile dysfunction. It can also cause memory and concentration problems, changes in muscle strength and low sex drive. It happens when the testes do not produce enough of the sex hormone testosterone.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal imbalance causes women with PCOS to have irregular periods, abnormal hair growth, excess acne and weight gain. It can lead to diabetes, increased risk of metabolic syndrome and infertility.
• Osteoporosis: When a woman’s ovaries don’t produce enough estrogen, bones become brittle and weak. Although it is more common in women, men sometimes have osteoporosis when testosterone levels get too low. People with an overactive parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism) may also have weak bones.

Chemicals called endocrine disrupters can also affect the endocrine system. These chemicals appear everywhere — in pesticides, plastics, cosmetics and even our food and water. Endocrine disrupters cause a wide range of problems throughout the body by changing how hormones send messages.

How common are these conditions?

• Diabetes: This condition is widespread. Almost 10% of people in the United States have diabetes and 27% have prediabetes.
• Thyroid disorders: About 20 million Americans have thyroid disease. Women are about five times more likely than men to develop the condition.
• Hypogonadism: About 40% of men over 45 have low testosterone. Levels of this sex hormone naturally drop as men age. Other factors, such as a man’s diet, weight and other health problems also affect testosterone levels.
• PCOS: This common condition affects about 5% to 10% of adult women in the U.S. It is a leading cause of infertility.
• Osteoporosis: More than half of adults over age 50 have osteoporosis. It is more likely to occur in women than in men.

Care

How can I keep my endocrine system healthy?

Your endocrine system needs the same things the rest of your body needs to stay healthy. You should exercise, eat right and see your healthcare provider regularly.

If you have a family history of diabetes, thyroid disorders or PCOS, talk to your provider. Managing these conditions can help you avoid a hormone imbalance that can lead to health problems.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should I call my doctor?

Some symptoms can point to a serious health condition, such as diabetes. Call your provider if you have:

• The urge to urinate (pee) a lot.
• Extreme thirst, even after you’ve had plenty of water.
• Nausea or stomach pain that doesn’t go away.
• Sudden weight loss or unexplained weight gain.
• Severe exhaustion or weakness.
• Problems with sweating too much.
• Sudden episodes of rapid heart hearts or elevated blood pressure
• Developmental or growth delays.

What Is It, Functions & Organs

Overview

What is the endocrine system?

Your endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it.

Function

What does the endocrine system do and how does it work?

Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood. Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly every process in your body, including:

• Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
• Growth and development.
• Emotions and mood.
• Fertility and sexual function.
• Sleep.
• Blood pressure.

Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can cause health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood and behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones. Illness, stress and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.

Anatomy

What are the parts of the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce hormones include:

• Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including the pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes in your body, including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.
• Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.
• Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for your metabolism (how your body uses energy).
• Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the right amount of calcium.
• Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.
• Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you to feel sleepy.
• Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.
• Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
• Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

Conditions and Disorders

What conditions and disorders affect the endocrine system?

Dozens of conditions can cause issues in the endocrine system. These conditions can lead to health problems all over the body. Some of the most common disorders are:

• Diabetes: This endocrine disorder affects the way your body uses the energy from the food you eat. Diabetes develops when the pancreas doesn’t make enough of a hormone called insulin, or insulin doesn’t work as it should.
• Thyroid disorders: Several conditions can affect the function of the thyroid gland. Hypothyroidism happens when the thyroid doesn’t produce enough hormones. Hyperthyroidism occurs when it creates too many hormones.
• Hypogonadism (low testosterone): In men, hypogonadism can cause erectile dysfunction. It can also cause memory and concentration problems, changes in muscle strength and low sex drive. It happens when the testes do not produce enough of the sex hormone testosterone.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal imbalance causes women with PCOS to have irregular periods, abnormal hair growth, excess acne and weight gain. It can lead to diabetes, increased risk of metabolic syndrome and infertility.
• Osteoporosis: When a woman’s ovaries don’t produce enough estrogen, bones become brittle and weak. Although it is more common in women, men sometimes have osteoporosis when testosterone levels get too low. People with an overactive parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism) may also have weak bones.

Chemicals called endocrine disrupters can also affect the endocrine system. These chemicals appear everywhere — in pesticides, plastics, cosmetics and even our food and water. Endocrine disrupters cause a wide range of problems throughout the body by changing how hormones send messages.

How common are these conditions?

• Diabetes: This condition is widespread. Almost 10% of people in the United States have diabetes and 27% have prediabetes.
• Thyroid disorders: About 20 million Americans have thyroid disease. Women are about five times more likely than men to develop the condition.
• Hypogonadism: About 40% of men over 45 have low testosterone. Levels of this sex hormone naturally drop as men age. Other factors, such as a man’s diet, weight and other health problems also affect testosterone levels.
• PCOS: This common condition affects about 5% to 10% of adult women in the U. S. It is a leading cause of infertility.
• Osteoporosis: More than half of adults over age 50 have osteoporosis. It is more likely to occur in women than in men.

Care

How can I keep my endocrine system healthy?

Your endocrine system needs the same things the rest of your body needs to stay healthy. You should exercise, eat right and see your healthcare provider regularly.

If you have a family history of diabetes, thyroid disorders or PCOS, talk to your provider. Managing these conditions can help you avoid a hormone imbalance that can lead to health problems.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should I call my doctor?

Some symptoms can point to a serious health condition, such as diabetes. Call your provider if you have:

• The urge to urinate (pee) a lot.
• Extreme thirst, even after you’ve had plenty of water.
• Nausea or stomach pain that doesn’t go away.
• Sudden weight loss or unexplained weight gain.
• Severe exhaustion or weakness.
• Problems with sweating too much.
• Sudden episodes of rapid heart hearts or elevated blood pressure
• Developmental or growth delays.

Endocrine System | BioNinja

The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands that release chemicals (hormones) into the blood to regulate body functions

• A hormone is a chemical messenger that is transported via the bloodstream to act on distant target cells
• Hormones are specific and will only activate cells or tissues that possess the appropriate target receptor
• The endocrine system is slower to initiate, but has a more prolonged response when compared to the nervous system

Endocrine Signalling

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands secrete their product (hormones) directly into the bloodstream, rather than through a duct (e. g. exocrine gland)

• Major endocrine glands include the pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pineal gland and the gonads (ovaries and testes)
• The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine glands and function to link the nervous and endocrine systems
• Some organs may also secrete hormones despite not being endocrine glands (e.g. adipose tissue secretes leptin)

Examples of Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is the section of the brain that links the nervous and endocrine systems in order to maintain homeostasis

• It receives information from nerves throughout the body and other parts of the brain and initiates endocrine responses
• It secretes certain neurochemicals (called releasing factors) into a portal system which stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland
• It also secretes certain hormones directly into the bloodstream via neurosecretory cells that extend into the pituitary gland

The pituitary gland lies adjacent to the hypothalamus and is in direct contact due to a portal blood system

• The pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’, as it controls the secretion of a number of other endocrine glands
• The pituitary gland receives instructions from the hypothalamus and consists of two lobes (anterior and posterior lobe)
  • The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) releases hormones in response to stimulation by hypothalamic releasing factors
  • The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus itself (via neurosecretory cells)

The Role of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland in Endocrine Function

Endocrine System – an overview

Introduction

The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, comprise the primary regulators of body metabolism. While the nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, the endocrine system operates through chemical messengers called hormones. Hormone production is regulated by a chain of choreographed interactions of many endocrine organs. As a response to physiological and environmental stress, hormones are synthesized and secreted in a timely and quantitative manner. They travel in the bloodstream to different parts of the body to elicit characteristic cellular responses through hormone-specific receptors in target endocrine organs. Upon binding to receptors at target organs, the hormone–receptor complex initiates a cascade of signal transduction reactions, which ultimately modulate expressions of genes, thus regulating physiological and cellular reactions that are essential for reproduction, growth, development, immune reactions, and neurobehavioral functions.

Furthermore, hormone production is controlled by negative feedback mechanisms. When there is sufficient concentration of a hormone in circulation, a control mechanism will send signals back to the hormone-producing organ to inhibit further hormone production. This mechanism prevents excessive stimulation and maintains the stability of the cellular status.

Many environmental factors, including the light cycle, temperature, naturally occurring ingredients in food, and anthropogenic pollutants, interact with the endocrine system and influence hormone production. Substances with the ability to interfere with hormone levels in the endocrine system, however, do not necessarily pose any health risk for humans and other organisms. The endocrine system has the capacity to tolerate moderate external challenges by evoking the above-described adaptable control/feedback mechanisms, thus maintaining functional homeostasis of the body. However, deleterious health effects could occur when the control mechanisms of equilibrium are overwhelmed by excessive amounts of exposure to endocrine disruptors.

Endocrine dysfunction could result from having either an excessive or insufficient amount of hormone production or failure to induce proper cellular responses. Excessive amounts of hormones may be caused by overproduction, rapid release from storage, decreased rate of metabolism or decreased excretion, while insufficient amount of hormone production may be caused by decreases in hormone synthesis or release, increased rate of metabolism or rapid excretion. Cellular injury of endocrine organs and altered enzymatic activities of hormone synthesis and metabolism could be the underlying etiology of endocrine toxicity. Endocrine dysfunction may also result from exposure to substances with structures similar to hormones that are capable of binding to receptors, thus either mimicking the function of a hormone or inhibiting the function of the normal hormone–receptor complex. An endocrine toxic substance may also change the way hormones are transported in circulation by adhering to or changing the amount of hormone-binding protein. In such cases, either the total concentration of a hormone or the amount in free form (i.e. biologically available form) can be altered. Furthermore, hormones are also involved in the differentiation and development of interrelated endocrine organs and the nervous systems. The potential of a substance to cause developmental effects depends not only on the amount of exposure, but also on the timing of exposure in an organism’s stage of life. During gestation and prepuberty, morphological and functional development in a fetus and young animal are highly sensitive to endocrine-disrupting agents.

How the Endocrine System Works

The endocrine system is made up of certain special glands and the hormones produced by those glands in the body. The hormones are important for instructing specific cells to produce particular actions in response to a stimulus or imbalance in the body. The glands are responsible to recognize the need for hormone secretion.

The hormones travel in the bloodstream to the cells where they act, and bind to the cells to initiate their effects.

These processes are tightly regulated by the endocrine system to maintain metabolic balance in the body. They are essential to keeping body functions normal. Such processes include cellular metabolism, sexual development and reproduction, homeostasis of sugar and other nutrients, and regulation of the heart rate, blood pressure, sleep cycles and digestion.

Endocrinologist testing woman patient at office – Image Copyright: NotarYES / Shutterstock

Components of the Endocrine System

The following are the chief glands of the endocrine system, which are involved in the secretion of the related hormones:

• Hypothalamus: also called the master gland of the endocrine system, it releases the following:
  
  • thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
  • growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
  • growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
  • gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
  • corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
  • oxytocin
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• Posterior and anterior pituitary gland: though the pituitary gland appears to be a single gland, it is made up of two different units, which secrete quite different hormones regulating diverse physiologic processes:
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • human growth hormone (HGH)
  • prolactin

Oxytocin and ADH are produced by the hypothalamic cells. The axons of these neurosecretory cells extend downwards to form the posterior pituitary gland, where these hormones are stored and released when required.

• Pineal gland: found in the brain, it secretes hormones like melatonin which regulate the circadian rhythm in response to light.
• Thyroid gland: this gland in the neck is essential for the proper function of almost all body tissues, releasing:
  • calcitonin
  • triiodothyronine (T3)
  • thyroxine (T4)

• Parathyroid glands: these are concerned with calcium metabolism and are embedded in the thyroid gland, secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Adrenal glands: these are situated like tiny caps on the kidneys, and secrete the stress hormones called glucocorticoids, the salt-water balance regulators called mineralocorticoids, and the male sex hormones, called the androgens. All these are from the adrenal cortex. As well, the adrenal produces the classic fight-fright-flight catecholamine hormones called epinephrine and norepinephrine, from the inner medulla.
• Pancreas: this is a large exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice to digest our food, but contains numerous scattered cell clumps called the islets of Langerhans.  These are made up of endocrine alpha and beta cells that secrete the glucose-regulating hormones glucagon and insulin respectively.
• Digestive system: cells in the digestive tract secrete various hormones which modulate digestive functions, such as cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, gastrin and ghrelin.
• Gonads: these are the primary sexual organs, which secrete testosterone, estrogens, and progesterone.
• Thymus: this gland in the neck releases the thymosins which mature the T-lymphocytes for immune function.
• Adipose tissue: fat cells throughout the body produce the hormone leptin. Low leptin levels encourage the body to enter ‘starvation mode’. Here it attempts to conserve energy by slowing down or avoiding all unnecessary activity, and to increase its intake of food by feelings of hunger.

Hormone, Receptor and Cell Interaction

An endocrine hormone is released by a specific gland and travels throughout the body in the bloodstream to reach its target cell, where it will exert a certain effect. Each hormone recognizes their target cells from the many other cells in the body by means of the receptors that exist on the cell, which they are able to bind to.

The receptor then initiates a series of chemical reactions within the cell to produce the intended effect of the hormone. For example, many endocrine hormones may stimulate the release of a chemical that induces or prevents the production of a certain gene.

After the action of the hormone, the release of the hormone from the endocrine gland must be regulated by a negative feedback loop to control the process and prevent the continuous and excessive activation of receptors.

Hormonal Regulation

Various processes in the endocrine system help to regulate the secretion of hormones and the resulting actions. This is essential for the body to maintain control over the action of the hormones. In other words, regulation is required to allow a hormone to initiate the intended reaction when needed and bring it to an end once the action has been completed.

For example, when the body is stressed the hypothalamus gland begins to secrete the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) into the blood. This travels to the anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then travels in the blood to the adrenal glands, to stimulate the adrenal cortex cells which secrete the hormone cortisol.

Cortisol is responsible for stimulating the liver and skeletal muscles to increase the metabolism of glycogen (a storage form of glucose) so as to increase the blood glucose levels. The aim is to provide more energy as a response to the initial stimulus of stress.

When the body has adapted or reacted sufficiently to the stress and the body no longer requires more energy, the secretion of cortisol is cut off by a negative feedback loop. That is, the higher concentrations of the cortisol hormone in the blood ‘tell’ the hypothalamus that the action has been completed.

As a result, the hypothalamus ceases to secrete the corticotropin-releasing hormone and the production of cortisol is reduced.

Chemical Regulation

Chemicals can also regulate the release of hormones, such as when an endocrine gland responds to a change in concentration of a chemical in the body.

For example, the parathyroid hormone is responsible for regulating the levels of calcium in the body. When the calcium levels in the blood drop below a certain threshold, the parathyroid gland begins to secrete more parathyroid hormone, which helps to increase the concentration of calcium in the bloodstream.

Once the levels of calcium rise to sufficient levels to fulfil the normal cellular function in the body, the production of the hormone reduces accordingly.

Neural Regulation

The nervous system can also affect the release of hormones in the body.

For example, during the process of childbirth, the head of the fetus pushes against the cervix. The stimulation of the nerves in the cervix activates the release of the hormone oxytocin from the pituitary gland to increase the frequency and intensity of uterine contractions, and to release more oxytocin.

Unlike hormonal and chemical regulation, this is a positive feedback loop, where the reaction causes an increase in the initial stimulus and further response.

The hormone only ceases to be produced when the baby is born and the pressure on the cervix is relieved.  

References

Further Reading

Endocrine System Organs, Glands | Hormones and Metabolism

The endocrine system is one of two systems that control and coordinate many functions to keep our bodies working in balance, called homeostasis. While our nervous system uses electrical impulses, the endocrine system uses chemicals called hormones. Hormones usually work more slowly than nerves, but can have longer lasting effects.

The endocrine system is made of 9 major glands located throughout our body. Together, these glands make dozens of chemical messengers called hormones and release them directly into the blood stream that surrounds the glands. Using chemicals, our endocrine system regulates a number of functions including our metabolic rate, growth rate, and how our body develops. Lab tests are used to diagnose and manage health conditions caused by imbalances in hormones and chemicals.

Endocrine Glands

Glands are a group of cells that produce and release hormones directly into our blood stream in a process called secretion. There are 2 types of glands. Exocrine glands have ducts or channels which secrete chemicals such as saliva or sweat. Endocrine glands do not have ducts; they secrete hormones directly into the blood stream.

Organs of the Endocrine System

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located in the brain and links the nervous and endocrine systems to each other. It secrets hormones that put the pituitary gland into action.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small, pine-cone shaped endocrine gland in the brain. It produces melatonin, a derivative of serotonin, a hormone that affects wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea. It weighs less than an ounce and is one of the most important organs in the body. It is located at the base of the brain and is closely connected to the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis by stimulating other endocrine glands to produce and secrete their own hormones.

This particular gland has two components: the anterior (front) pituitary (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior (back) pituitary (neurohypophysis).  The anterior lobe makes up most of the gland and releases the majority of the hormones. The smaller posterior lobe stores hormones but does not make them. It links the endocrine system with the nervous system by way of the hypothalamus.

The pituitary gland is known as the ‘master’ endocrine gland. The hypothalamus controls the production of hormones in both lobes. The pituitary gland produces many important hormones, some of which act on other glands to make them produce hormones. The pituitary gland releases at least 9 hormones that have important effects on the body—these include the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone  stimulates the adrenal glands.

Thyroid

The butter-fly shaped thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands. The thyroid gland is in the front of the neck, just below the thyroid cartilage or “Adam’s apple”. The isthmus bridges the two lobes of the thyroid and is located below the cricoid cartilage.

The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body uses energy (metabolism), calcium levels in the blood, how the body makes proteins, and how sensitive the body is to other hormones. It produces thyroid hormones, the principal ones being triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine which can sometimes be called tetraiodothyronine (T4) and calcitonin. These hormones regulate the heart rate, the rate of metabolism and affect the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body. T3 and T4 are made from iodine and tyrosine. Calcitonin slows down the rate at which bone is broken down decreasing the amount of calcium dissolved in the blood.

Parathyroid Gland

The parathyroid gland controls calcium levels in the blood. The parathyroid is a small of glands around by the thyroid gland. They produce the parathyroid hormone or PTH, which increases the rate at which broke bone is broken down. As a result, more calcium is released into the blood. Parathyroid hormone works in partnership with calcitonin from the thyroid gland. The 2 hormones have the opposite effect. Through negative feedback they keep the calcium level in the blood stable.

Hormonal output from the thyroid is regulated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by the anterior pituitary, which itself is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) produced by the hypothalamus.  The thyroid gets its name from the Greek word for “shield” because of its shape. The most common problems of the thyroid gland are overactive thyroid gland, called hyperthyroidism, and an underactive thyroid gland, called hypothyroidism.

Thymus

The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. The thymus “educates” T-lymphocytes (T cells), which are critical cells of the adaptive immune system.

Adrenal Glands

The small, triangular adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) sit atop the kidneys. Each is divided into two distinct anatomic and functional organs. The adrenal cortex (the outer region which secretes corticosteroid hormones that affect metabolism (that is how food is stored and used), chemicals in the blood, and characteristics such as body shape and hairiness. The smaller, inner region—the adrenal medulla (which is part of the sympathetic nervous system)—is the body’s first line of defense against physical and emotional stress.

They are mainly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. They also produce androgens. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, a hormone that helps regulate the osmolarity of blood plasma. The adrenal glands help us deal with dress and as well as maintain homeostasis.

Disorders of the adrenal glands include congenital defects such as adrenal hyperplasia, tumors, autoimmune disorders, infection, and impaired blood supply.

Adrenal cortex

When looked at under a microscope, the adrenal cortex is made up of 3 distinct zones. The outermost zone secretes the hormone aldosterone, which inhibits the amount of sodium excreted in the urine, maintaining blood pressure and blood volume. The inner and middle zones together secrete hormones hydrocortisone, also called cortisol, corticosterone, as well as small amounts of androgen hormones. The rate of release and amount of secretion is controlled by other hormones made in the hypothalamus and pituitary.

Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is closely related to nervous tissue and secretes the hormone epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerves. These nerves are most active at times of stress. The release of these hormones increases the heart rate in order to pump more blood to the large skeletal muscles. The airways in the lungs are increased so that more oxygen can be taken in. As more blood is sent to the active organs less blood is sent to the internal organs.

Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive system and endocrine system. It is both an endocrine gland—producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide—and a digestive organ—secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that help with the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Ovaries

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs in the female reproductive system. Ovaries in women are analogous to testes in males—they are both gonads and endocrine glands. Our ovaries produce estrogen, progesterone, relaxin and inhibin.

Testes

The testicle is the male gonad. Like the ovaries in women to which they are homologous, testes are components of both the reproductive system and the endocrine system. The primary functions of the testes are to produce inhibin, sperm (spermatogenesis) and androgens, primarily testosterone.

Hormones

Hormones are powerful chemical messengers that our endocrine system uses to control various processes in our body. Hormones can be fat-soluble or water-soluble. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood stream near them; the hormones then travel in our bloodstream until it reaches its destination, called a target cell, in distance parts of the body. In the target tissue, hormones lock onto the target’s plasma membrane, called the receptor site. This chemical changes inside the target cells and adjusts the rate at which a specific action happens, such as a contraction of the muscle. Hormones can have one target or several targets. Hormones are released when they get feedback from triggers. Some hormones work on specific cells while other hormones work throughout the body. The level of hormones in the body are controlled by feedback. It is important that the amount of hormones in our body is kept at the right level. If hormone levels get too high or too low, they can make us sick. Although hormones come in contact with many cells in the body, they only react with target cells. A hormone can have more than one target cell, and can have different effects on different targets.

Luteininzing Hormone

This is a pituitary hormone that helps regulate the function of the reproductive organs. It stimulates ovulation to release the egg in the woman’s ovaries. In men it triggers the testes to produce male reproductive hormones.

Prolactin

This is a pituitary hormone that stimulates the production of milk in the breast. It is one of several hormones that stimulate milk production or lactation. Breast-feeding stimulates the pituitary gland to make more prolactin so that milk is made for as long as the baby breastfeeds.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is a pituitary hormone that stimulates muscle contractions in the uterus during childbirth. These contractions cause the release of more oxytocin. This is a positive feedback reaction that makes the cycle continue until the baby is born. Oxytocin also stimulates the breasts to release milk when the baby feeds.

Glucagon

The hormone glucagon increases the level of sugar in the blood. It plays a vital part in maintaining the correct blood sugar level. It is made by the pancreas, a gland that is part of the endocrine system and the digestive system. The pancreas releases glucagon when the blood sugar level starts to fall. Glucogon makes cells release glucose, and helps convert glycogen, the form of glucose stored in the liver, back to glucose. As a result the blood sugar level rises. Your blood has enough glucose to keep you alive for just 15 min. However, as glucose is used up, more is released to take its place.

Reproductive Hormones

Reproductive hormones control the reproductive development of boys and girls. The development of primary and secondary characteristics and regulate all reproductive related processes such as sperm and egg production. Primary reproductive characteristics are the development of the major reproductive organs. There are 3 main types of reproductive hormones—androgens, estrogen, and progesterone.

Female Reproductive Hormone

Estrogen is the female hormone made mainly in the ovaries. It not only makes the girl reproductive organs develop, and controls her monthly menstrual cycle. Progesterone is the female hormone that prepares the girls uterus for pregnancy every month. Some contraceptive pills have estrogen in them to prevent the ovaries from releasing their egg cells.

Male Reproductive Hormone

The male reproductive system consists of the penis, scrotum, and the 2 testes. A male reproductive system creates sperm cells that combined with a female egg to create a new human life. The testes and scrotum hang outside the body where it is cooler because it improves sperm production. Sperm cells look like microscopic tadpoles. Sperm is made in the testes, which are inside the scrotum. Sperm cells leave the testes through epididymis. The epididymis connects to the vas deferens. Glands called seminal vesicles lie along the vas deferens and add fluids and nutrients to the sperm. The male reproductive system also produces the reproductive hormones needed to make sperm and for a boy to develop at puberty. The male reproductive hormone testosterone also stimulates bone and muscle growth

Epinephrine

Epinephrine is a hormone that works with out nervous system to prepare our body to cope with danger or stress. If you’re suddenly scared, your heart pounds, your breathing becomes steep and rapid. These are just two of the effects of epinephrine, also called adrenaline. Epinephrine is a very fast acting hormone that prepares our body for emergency action—also called the fight or flight reflex. It speeds up our breathing and heart rate and diverts extra blood to the muscles. At the same time it slows down digestion and makes the liver release glucose into the bloodstream so more fuel is available for the muscles to contract.

Insulin

Insulin is a hormone that reduces the level of sugar in our blood. Insulin is a protein made by the pancreas. It is released when the blood sugar level rises and reduces the sugar in 2 ways. First it makes insulin take up the glucose. 2nd in makes the liver store glucose by turning it into glycogen. Insulin and glucagon have opposite effects. Together they form a negative feedback system that keep sugar levels within set limits. In people with diabetes this control system does not work properly and they made may need daily injections of insulin to keep their blood glucose levels within safe limits.

Growth Hormone

The growth hormone is a pituitary hormone that controls the body’s growth by stimulating cell division. It also increases the blood glucose level. If your body has too little growth hormone, the body fails to grow normally. Too much growth hormone can cause the body to grow more than usual.

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone

The thyroid stimulating hormone makes the thyroid gland produce thyroid hormones.

Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone

This hormone stimulates the adrenal glands to produce other hormones.

Antidiuretic Hormone

This pituitary hormone increases the amount of water in the blood. A diuretic is a substance that stimulates the body to produce urine by taking water out of the blood stream. The antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin, have the opposite effect. It increases the amount of water that the kidneys return to the blood and makes arterioles constrict. As a result, more fluid is squeezed into a smaller space and blood pressure rises.

Follicle-stimulating Hormone

This hormone and the Luteininzing Hormone are used in reproduction in both men and women. They also affect the production of reproductive hormones.

Growth Hormone

The growth hormone encourages growth in children and teenagers, makes our bones stronger, and helps build muscle. Growth is controlled by hormones produced by the pituitary gland.

Oxytocin Hormone

Oxytocin encourages childbirth and makes the breasts release milk when breast-feeding a baby.

Prolactin Hormone

Prolactin is produced during and after pregnancy and helps the breasts produce milk for breast-feeding.

Disorders of the Endocrine System

• Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
• Hyperthyroidism
• Graves’ disease
• Hypothyroidism
• Type I diabetes
• Type II diabetes
• Gestational diabetes
• Hypopituitaryism
• Pituitary tumors
• Thyroid carcinoma
• Acromegaly
• Cushing’s syndrome
• Addison’s disease
• Calcium metabolism disorders

Endocrine system

The endocrine system ensures the stable work of the human body in a constantly changing environment, its protection from stress.

The endocrine system includes the following main organs: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, mammary gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (testes in men), gallbladder and appendix. The organs of the ES are glands that provide growth, physiological development, reproductive functions of a person, as well as the course of the most important processes of balancing the activity of the whole organism under continuously changing external influences.The management of all this work and control over the correctness of its implementation is carried out in the body by hormones, which are produced by the glands of the ES. Each hormone is responsible for its own organs and functions, but works in a delicate balance with hormones produced by other glands. Depending on the function performed at the moment, its own balance of hubbubs is required. Its failure causes disruption of the work of the corresponding systems, organs, the flow of the necessary reactions, which leads to the emergence of first deviations in the work of the body, and then diseases.Therefore, regular monitoring of hormonal levels is the key to the timely detection of violations and their curability. Another feature of ES should be noted: the interrelation and interdependence of its glands is so great that a violation found in one of the organs almost automatically means the presence of problems in others – after all, the hormonal failure is obvious.

The endocrine glands (EG) do not have excretory ducts, and the substances (hormones) secreted by them enter directly into the blood and lymph. By sending hormones into the bloodstream, EJs create a communication system and control the work of literally every cell in the body.Hormones provide its chemical balance, give the cells instructions how to act, taking into account their abilities and capabilities. The purpose of the EJ is to ensure the well-being of the whole organism, balance in the work of internal organs, regardless of changes in the external environment, to protect the body from the destructive effects of stress.

Hypothalamus. Regulates the temperature response, establishes the correct relationship between heat release and heat transfer, controls the pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland.Supervises the work of the entire system. Incoming and outgoing messages are coordinated and make the ES work efficiently and harmoniously. The pituitary gland controls the chemical balance of the body by acting on most of the chemical processes in the body (for example, the regulation of water-salt and fat metabolism).

There is a constant need for the body to adapt to external changes, and this is also part of the task of the pituitary gland. The human body grows, wears out, and the pituitary gland is involved in providing growth and repair.Moreover, it provides reproductive function.

The pituitary gland performs its functions with the help of hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands. These, in turn, release hormones that affect the pituitary gland itself and the nervous system. What happens in the body when the production of only one hormone is disrupted is illustrated by the example of growth hormone. If it is produced more than the norm, a person becomes a victim of gigantism, if less than the norm, he remains a dwarf.

The pituitary gland is called the conductor of the ES, and sometimes its “brain”.

Thyroid gland. If the pituitary gland is the conductor of the ES, then the thyroid gland (TG) is its metronome. It kind of sets the pace for all cells in the body. The main function of the thyroid gland is to control the correct metabolism, the absorption of oxygen. It can speed up the metabolism if it increases the amount of hormones sent into the bloodstream, or slow it down by reducing the amount. However, this does not happen, since its work is under the control of thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. And that, in turn, controls the thyroid hormone, which provides feedback to the pituitary gland.That is, there is a self-regulating mechanism of balance and control between the pituitary gland and the thyroid gland, which works in a certain cycle.

Normal thyroid function contributes to growth, puberty, childbirth, mental development, emotional balance, love of life.

Adrenal glands. Their bark is actually the gland itself, also called the adrenal gland. It produces adrenaline, which increases vascular tone and blood pressure. The adrenal cortex affects the performance of the body, its resistance to stress. The female adrenal glands also help the ovaries – they also produce sex hormones. Moreover, during menopause, when the ovaries stop their production.

Pancreas. It produces insulin, which enhances the burning of glycogen in the muscles, which proceeds with the release of energy.

Gallbladder. During stress, it throws out bile, as a result of which the peristalsis of the small intestine increases, the rotting masses are quickly pushed into the large intestine, into the rectum.An accelerated release from toxins occurs, due to which their entry into the blood is prevented.

Appendix. At the moment of stress, a hormone is released, as a result of which the peristalsis of the large intestine increases and the decaying masses are released through the rectum (this process is often called “bear disease”).

Ovaries. In the broadest sense, the ovaries provide a woman with femininity. They perform this function through two main hormones: estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone promotes fertility, while estrogen provides other features of femininity, including a complex function like the menstrual cycle. And when the ovaries reduce its secretion, menopause occurs.

Hormones. It is a Greek word meaning “excite”, “put into action.” These are a kind of chemical messages ordering certain organs to act. The hormone does not explain to the cells what work they should do, but only determines how much and how quickly it should be done.Each hormone has its own controlled organs, but circulating throughout the body, it affects others, having a specific and general effect.

The pituitary gland produces three main hormones: gonadotropic (stimulates the ovaries and gonads) and mammotropic or prolactin (affects the mammary glands, promotes the formation of milk after childbirth) and thyroid-stimulating.

The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones. There are constant chemical processes inside the body.With their help, food and oxygen are processed and converted into living matter, heat and energy are consumed, unnecessary residues are thrown away, and what wears out is reconstructed. Various chemical processes occur during respiration, digestion, in the work of muscles, in the secretion of glands. This is the metabolism for which thyroid hormones are responsible.

The main adrenal hormone is adrenaline. Its functions can be reduced to three concepts: life, work, stress. He participates in many metabolic processes, including fluid and salt balance, immunological reactions.

The ovaries, along with progesterone and estrogen, produce androgen, which provides a balance in the female body of female and male sex hormones.

Magazine “Happy” clinic “She”

Endocrinology, endocrinologist services

Endocrine glands and products of their secretory activity have a great influence on our body. Endocrinology is a field of medicine that studies the structural features and functions of the endocrine glands, their diseases and the effect on the vital activity of the body.

The main task of the endocrine glands is the production and release into the bloodstream of biologically active substances – hormones. The hormone-forming function of the endocrine system is influenced by the central and peripheral nervous system. In turn, the endocrine system regulates the metabolic processes of the body, ensuring the constancy of the internal environment and the normal course of all biochemical processes.

Endocrine glands are the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, islets of the pancreas, adrenal glands, sex glands of male and female organisms, in addition, a number of body elements are a source of tissue hormones entering the bloodstream.Endocrinology studies the system of endocrine glands, hormones, and target organs. The balance of all components of this system ensures the health of the body and the physiological course of all processes in it. The transfer of information contained in hormones is carried out using receptors located on the surface of the target organ or tissue. A highly informative research method in endocrinology is study of the hormonal mirror of the patient’s body. The Akron Medical Center conducts a comprehensive study of hormones using modern techniques and laboratory equipment.Ultrasound examination of the structure of the endocrine glands is of great importance for the diagnosis of endocrine diseases. The endocrinologist analyzes the patient’s complaints, the data of an objective examination, instrumental and laboratory research methods, and then selects a scheme for correcting the disease. In the future, he dynamically monitors the progress of recovery.

90,000 Pediatric endocrinologist who is this? – Virilis

Who is this specialist?

Endocrinologist – specializes in the treatment, diagnosis and prevention of diseases of the endocrine system of babies.Endocrinology is the science that studies these glands, how hormones work, and how the hormonal system works. The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that secrete hormones – chemicals that regulate the functioning of organs and systems. These include the thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, and gonads (gonads). Together, they control the work of the entire child’s body and affect the development and growth of the baby. For example, hormones regulate how a child grows and matures.Endocrine disorders are a diverse group of diseases that affect the growth, development and sexual function of a child.

It is extremely important to monitor the state of the endocrine system through regular preventive examinations. Most often, a pediatrician directs an appointment with a pediatric endocrinologist, but our medical center can be a pediatric gastroenterologist, immunologist or dermatologist. The child’s endocrine system is responsible for the hormonal sphere of the baby’s health, therefore, the correctness of its development and growth largely depends on its state.Without timely treatment, such pathologies can lead to infertility or dementia in adulthood. Our endocrinologists have extensive training and experience in treating children with endocrine disorders and hormonal problems.

In newborns and infants , an endocrinologist detects and treats congenital pathologies of the endocrine system, such as dysfunctions of the pituitary gland, problems with the determination of sexual differentiation, disorders of glucose and calcium metabolism, and diseases of the thyroid gland.

You can make an appointment with a doctor and get acquainted with the prices on the page: Children’s endocrinologist.

Diseases treated by an endocrinologist in children

Pediatric endocrinologists diagnose and treat the following hormonal disorders:

• Stunting,
• Early or delayed puberty,
• Enlarged thyroid gland,
• Hypofunction and hyperfunction of the thyroid gland,
• Hypo- or hyperfunction of the pituitary gland,
• Hypo- or hyperfunction of the adrenal glands,
• Gender Uncertainty,
• Ovarian and testicular dysfunction,
• Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia),
• Obesity,
• Vitamin D problems (rickets, hypocalcemia),
• Hyper- or hypocalcemia, juvenile osteoporosis,
• Diabetes mellitus, type 1 and type 2,
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia,
• Turner Syndrome,
• Klinefelter’s Syndrome,
• Hypopituitarism,
• Adrenoleukodystrophy,
• Lipid Disorders,
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia,
• Polycystic ovary syndrome.

Main endocrine organs in children and their functions

The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys. They differ in structure: the right gland is triangular, and the left is in the shape of a crescent. Adrenal glands output:

• Corticosteroids are hormones involved in stress responses, regulating the immune system, and inflammation.
• Catecholamines, such as norepinephrine and adrenaline, released in response to stress.
• Aldosterone, which affects renal function.
• Androgens or male sex hormones, including testosterone, that regulate the development of masculine traits such as facial hair growth and a deeper voice.

The hypothalamus is located just above the brainstem and below the thalamus. This gland activates and controls the body’s involuntary functions, including breathing, heart rate, appetite, sleep, temperature, and circadian cycles, or daily rhythms.The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system through the attached pituitary gland.

Ovaries are located on either side of the uterus in girls. They secrete the hormones estrogen and progesterone. These hormones promote sexual development, fertility, and menstruation.

Testicles are located in the scrotum below the penis in boys. They secrete androgens, mainly testosterone. Androgens control sexual development, puberty, facial hair, sexual behavior, libido, erectile function, and sperm production.

The pancreas is located in the abdominal cavity and is both an endocrine gland and a digestive organ. She generates:

• insulin to regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body,
• somatostatin, which controls the functioning of the endocrine and nervous systems and controls the secretion of several hormones such as gastrin, insulin and growth hormone,
• Glucagon is a peptide hormone that raises blood glucose levels when it drops too low,
• pancreatic polypeptide that regulates the secretion of substances produced by the pancreas.

Diabetes and digestive problems can occur with diseases of the pancreas.

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands located in the neck that produce the parathyroid hormone, which regulates the calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. Muscles and nerves can work effectively only with a certain constant concentration of these substances in the blood.

The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located deep in the brain.It releases melatonin and helps control sleep and reproductive hormone levels in the body.

The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland attached to the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. It is sometimes called the main endocrine gland because it secretes hormones that regulate the functions of other glands, as well as regulate growth and several other bodily functions. Anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that affect sexual development, thyroid function, growth, skin pigmentation and adrenal function.If the anterior pituitary gland is insufficiently active, it can lead to stunted growth in childhood and insufficient activity in other endocrine glands.

The posterior pituitary gland secretes oxytocin, a hormone that enhances uterine contractions, and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the reabsorption of fluid in the kidneys.

Thymus is an endocrine gland located under the sternum. T-lymphocytes (a type of immune cell) mature and multiply in the thymus in children.After puberty, the gland is resorbed. The thymus plays a role in building immunity in children.

The thyroid gland , located just below the Adam’s apple in the neck, produces hormones that play a key role in regulating blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, metabolism, and how the body responds to other hormones. The thyroid gland uses iodine to produce hormones. The two main hormones it produces are thyroxine and triiodothyronine.It also produces calcitonin, which helps to strengthen bones and regulates calcium metabolism.

Diseases of the endocrine system in children

Disruption of hormones can be the result of congenital genetic defects or exposure to harmful environmental factors. Some babies are born with hormonal problems that can lead to a range of health problems such as short stature. Endocrine disrupting chemicals such as pesticides, lead and phthalates, which are used in plastic food containers, can also cause hormonal problems in children.

There are three broad groups of endocrine disorders:

1. The gland is not producing enough of its hormones. This is called hypofunction or hyposecretion of the endocrine glands.
2. The gland produces too many hormones – hyperfunction or hypersecretion of the gland.
3. Tumors of the endocrine glands. They can be malignant or benign.

With adrenal pathology , hypersecretion can lead to excessive nervousness, sweating, high blood pressure and Cushing’s disease.Hypofunction can lead to Addison’s disease, mineralocorticoid deficiency, weight loss, loss of energy, and anemia.

Hypersecretion of the pancreas can lead to hyperinsulinemia, and a decrease in blood glucose levels. Hyposecretion can lead to diabetes.

Hypersecretion of parathyroid glands can lead to fragility of bones and the formation of stones in the urinary system. Hyposecretion can lead to involuntary muscle contractions or tetany caused by low plasma calcium levels.

Hyperthyroidism is most commonly associated with Graves’ disease. This can lead to an accelerated metabolism, sweating, arrhythmias or irregular heartbeat, weight loss and nervousness in children. Hypothyroidism can lead to lethargy and fatigue, weight gain, depression, abnormal bone development, and stunted development and growth.

Hypersecretion of the pituitary gland can lead to gigantism or overgrowth, and hyposecretion to slow bone growth and short stature.

Hypersecretion of thymus results in an overactive immune system that overreacts to perceived threats. This can lead to autoimmune disease. Hyposecretion can lead to a weakened immune system when the body is unable to fight infection and easily succumbs to viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens.

When should I make an appointment with a pediatric endocrinologist in St. Petersburg?

• A sudden change in the weight of the child.
• Excessive thirst, frequent trips to the toilet (signs of diabetes in children).
• Overweight, stretch marks and high blood pressure.
• Rapid fatigue, lethargy, drowsiness and restless sleep.
• Slight excitability, irritability and palpitations.
• Too early puberty (up to 8 years) with the manifestation of the corresponding signs (hair growth under the armpits and pubic hair, enlargement of the mammary glands, etc.).
• Big difference in height in relation to peers.
• Unusual body odor.

Preparing for a visit to the doctor

Because endocrine disorders can affect many aspects of a child’s growth and development, the doctor needs to gather as much information as possible about the child’s medical history. Parents can help by preparing all medical records and research findings from past years.

If the child is old enough to understand speech and events, he needs to explain the purpose of the visit to the doctor in terms that are understandable to him.The initial appointment will take from 1.5 to 2 hours. This will be enough for the doctor to take a history, conduct an examination, take the necessary tests and discuss the treatment plan with the parents. This will be a very long time for a child, therefore, in order for him to sit quietly, he needs to take toys or books with him.

What does the doctor do at the appointment?

During the appointment, the St. Petersburg pediatric endocrinologist examines the child and prescribes appropriate tests and studies.The most commonly used laboratory diagnostics and ultrasound. With the help of analyzes, the hormonal background is determined, and with the help of ultrasound, the endocrine glands are visually inspected. He will check the baby’s heart rate and blood pressure, and monitor the health of their skin, hair, teeth and mouth.

As a result of the examination, the doctor will make a conclusion and make a diagnosis, prescribe treatment, write out the necessary prescriptions and give recommendations. He will draw up a sheet of temporary disability, write out the necessary certificates for the child.

The treatment and follow-up plan will be discussed with the parents, who will have the opportunity to ask questions and leave with an understanding of your child’s condition and the doctor’s recommendations. Also, the endocrinologist will advise on the correct development of the child, the prevention of diseases, offer classes in physiotherapy exercises, aquatherapy and swimming, physiotherapy.

Analysis and Research

The endocrinologist can carry out the following tests necessary to clarify the diagnosis:

• General and clinical blood tests.
• Urinalysis.
• Analysis of urine and blood for the content of hormones.
• Blood test for sugar (glucose) levels.
• Biochemical blood test.
• Lipidogram – an assessment of the level of various types of cholesterol: high-density lipids, low-density lipids, triglyceride levels.
• Glycosylated hemoglobin.
• Test for glucose tolerance.
• Radiocompetitive microanalysis of hormones.
• Gamma topographic surveys.
• Single-photon densitometry.
• Computed tomography.
• Magnetic resonance (nuclear magnetic) tomography.
• Phlebography.
• X-ray of the skull.
• Thyroid scintigraphy.
• Ultrasound examination.
• Fine-needle puncture biopsy of the thyroid gland (puncture of the thyroid gland).
• Thermography.
• Evaluation of bone density.

It is often necessary to measure blood hormone levels in order to make a complete assessment, and tests usually take 1 to 2 weeks.Some tests must be done at specific times of the day and may need to be taken at home. Certain hormones must be measured under specific conditions. If necessary, you will have to schedule another visit specifically for testing.

Treatment of hormonal disorders and pathology of the endocrine glands

Hormonal growth disorders in children

Growth disorders are problems that prevent children from reaching normal height, weight, or puberty.Growth disorders may be associated with:

• The short stature of the parents, which means that the child can only achieve the same height.
• Stunting, also called constitutional stunting.
• Lack of hormones – for example, low levels of growth hormone, thyroid hormones, or pituitary hormones.
• A health condition that can cause poor growth, such as celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, or kidney disease.
• Genetic disorders such as Turner or Noonan syndromes.

Growth disorders in case of hormone deficiency, treated with hormone replacement therapy. In case of growth hormone deficiency, daily injections will be necessary.

Thyroid diseases

Hypothyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones. Some babies are born with similar problems, while others develop autoimmune diseases such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, which damage the thyroid gland.

Hyperthyroidism is a pathological condition when the thyroid gland produces too many hormones. Hyperthyroidism can be caused by Graves disease, hashitoxicosis, and overactive thyroid nodules.

Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) – May indicate an insufficient or overactive thyroid gland. In some cases, the gland becomes so large that it causes trouble breathing or swallowing.

Thyroid nodules – e These are formations in the thyroid gland, which can often be benign, but rarely can be malignant.

Thyroid cancer – includes papillary, follicular and medullary thyroid cancer.

Genetic diseases may increase the risk of thyroid cancer in children. These include multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2), DICER1 syndrome, familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), Gardner syndrome, Carney complex, Werner syndrome, and PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome.

To diagnose diseases of the thyroid gland, the doctor palpates the organ and regional lymph nodes.Blood tests help to find out the level of production and hormonal imbalance. By checking the levels of certain hormones, including T4, T3, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and in some cases calcitonin, your doctor can determine if your thyroid is working properly. Blood tests can also detect thyroid antibodies, which are indicative of an autoimmune inflammatory process. Genetic testing can determine if there are genetic mutations that cause MEN2 or other conditions that increase a child’s risk of developing thyroid cancer.

For instrumental diagnostics, ultrasound of the thyroid gland is used, determining nodules in the structure of the gland, scanning the thyroid gland using radioactive iodine, biopsy to detect cancer cells.

Methods for the treatment of thyroid diseases are selected taking into account the individual needs of the child and the nature of the disorders. The main goal of therapy is to restore hormone levels to normal in order to relieve symptoms and prevent complications.

In most cases, hypothyroidism can be safely and successfully treated with a daily dose of synthetic thyroid hormone.Hyperthyroidism can be treated with anti-thyroid medications, which stop the thyroid gland from producing hormones. Children with an overactive thyroid may also need to take beta blockers to lower heart rate, blood pressure, agitation, and tremors until thyroid hormone levels are under control.

In some cases, the child may be prescribed radioactive iodine preparations, which will destroy the thyroid gland.It is a permanent treatment option for children whose overactive thyroid cannot be treated with medication. In children with thyroid cancer, this treatment can be used after surgery to kill any remaining cancer cells. After the thyroid gland is destroyed, your child will take a daily dose of synthetic thyroid hormone, which will support normal growth, development, and long-term reproductive function.

Surgery can be used to remove part of the thyroid gland (lobectomy) or the entire gland (total thyroidectomy).This may be necessary to remove a large goiter, hyperactive nodules, or thyroid cancer. If all of the gland has been removed, your child will take a daily replacement dose of synthetic thyroid hormone.

Type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes, also called juvenile diabetes, occurs when the body’s immune system destroys the cells in the pancreas that make insulin. Insulin is a hormone that takes sugar (known as glucose) from your bloodstream and delivers it to your cells for use as energy.Without insulin, blood sugar levels remain high, which can lead to serious complications over time. The diagnosis is made with blood and urine tests. Because children with type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin, patients should receive insulin by injection daily or by using an insulin pump. They should also check their blood sugar levels throughout the day and pay particular attention to diet and exercise. Eating right to maintain healthy blood sugar levels and maintaining a healthy weight are critical to treating type 1 diabetes.Regular medical examinations and monitoring of blood sugar levels using urine and blood tests, including a blood test (A1C or glycated hemoglobin test), are mandatory. The pediatric endocrinologist will regularly assess the child’s kidney, thyroid and liver function, monitor blood pressure and physical growth. They will also refer the child to a pediatric optometrist for regular eye exams. These checks help prevent common diabetes complications such as vision problems.

Type 2 diabetes

In type 2 diabetes, the child’s body produces insulin, but either not enough or uses it ineffectively.This leads to high blood sugar levels, which over time can lead to serious complications. Type 2 diabetes is treated with metformin, which reduces the amount of sugar released by the liver into the bloodstream. The medication alone cannot control type 2 diabetes, so the child will have to diet, exercise, and control their weight all the time. Daily insulin injections may be needed to control daily blood sugar levels.

Sexual developmental disorders

Babies born with sexual development disorders (undifferentiated sex of the child) may have genitals that are clearly not male or female.It is the most common sexual development disorder in children.

It can occur due to chromosomal abnormalities, hormonal imbalances, including congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

Genital abnormalities include abnormal growth of the penis, scrotum or clitoris, impaired testicular development, and an absent or atypical vagina.

For the treatment of pathology, an operation to correct ambiguous or atypical genitals may be indicated. In addition to correcting physical problems that may affect the child’s health, surgery may be required to allow the child to have a normal sex life and the ability to have children in the future.The surgery is usually performed for boys between the ages of 6 and 18 months, when the growth of the penis is minimal. Girls can undergo surgery during this period of time, but vaginal surgeries that affect fertility may be delayed until puberty. Non-surgical techniques such as vaginal stretching can also be used.

For adolescents aged 16 and over, gender-appropriate hormone therapy can be used to induce physical and emotional changes that better match their gender identity.

Lipid metabolism disorders

Children may experience the following lipid disorders:

• High cholesterol or hypercholesterolemia (high blood cholesterol).
• High triglyceride levels or hypertriglyceridemia (high triglyceride levels in the blood).
• Disorders of lipid metabolism associated with diabetes, obesity and metabolic syndrome (combination of high blood pressure, high blood sugar, unhealthy cholesterol and abdominal fat).

An endocrinologist will perform a physical examination and blood test to assess the child’s health. If blood tests show that the condition is the result of an inherited disease, a geneticist will be brought in to determine if additional genetic testing is needed. If the disease affects the heart or kidneys, the pediatric endocrinologist will work closely with the pediatric cardiologist or nephrologist. Doctors will carefully assess the long-term risks of cardiovascular disease in a child and determine if medications may be helpful in treating lipid disorders.

Overweight children can have a range of health problems, from asthma and sleep apnea to diabetes, high blood pressure, liver problems, and joint pain. They are prone to social and emotional problems, some children may have low self-esteem, anxiety disorders and depression. These problems can accompany them into adulthood, putting them at risk of cardiovascular disease and other serious chronic diseases. Both being overweight and obese can increase the likelihood of developing serious complications.These problems include diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, gallstones, high cholesterol, gout, and many types of cancer. Obesity can even increase the risk of early death.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to weight loss. Doctors always develop an individual method that suits the needs of the child. The nutritional and exercise plan takes into account the child’s history, complications that require treatment, and personal preferences and goals.

Some patients will require medication and a special diet under medical supervision. Bariatric surgery can be used for children ages 14 and older. Intervention is advisable only to feast a combination of several conditions:

• For adolescents with a body mass index (BMI) over 50 who have not been able to change their lifestyle or start taking weight loss medications.
• For adolescents who demonstrate the ability to lead a healthy lifestyle.
• After assessing the psychological stability of the child and his family members.

Human endocrine system

Human endocrine system – a system of endocrine glands located in the central nervous system, various organs and tissues; one of the main systems of regulation of the body. The endocrine system carries out a regulating influence through hormones, which are characterized by high biological activity (ensuring the vital processes of the body: growth, development, reproduction, adaptation, behavior).

The central link of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

Peripheral link of the endocrine system – thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, as well as ovaries and testes, glands, parathyroid glands, b-cells of the islets of the pancreas.

A special place in the endocrine system is occupied by the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The hypothalamus, in response to nerve impulses, has a stimulating or inhibitory effect on the anterior pituitary gland.Through the pituitary hormones, the hypothalamus regulates the function of the peripheral endocrine glands. So, for example, stimulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) of the pituitary gland occurs, and the latter, in turn, stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. In this regard, it is customary to talk about uniform functional systems: hypothalamus – pituitary gland – thyroid gland, hypothalamus – pituitary gland – adrenal glands.

The loss of each of the components of hormonal regulation from the general system disrupts a single chain of regulation of body functions and leads to the development of various pathological conditions.

Pathology of the endocrine system is expressed by diseases and pathological conditions, which are based on hyperfunction, hypofunction or dysfunction of the endocrine glands.

The etiology and pathogenesis of many endocrine diseases are still insufficiently understood. The pathology of the endocrine system can be associated with genetically determined ones, incl. chromosomal abnormalities, inflammatory and neoplastic processes, disorders of the immune system, trauma, circulatory disorders, lesions of various parts of the nervous system, impaired tissue sensitivity to hormones.Among the most common endocrine diseases and pathological conditions, it should be noted diabetes mellitus, diffuse toxic goiter, hypothyroidism, dysfunctions of the gonads, etc.

Endocrinology at the Hartman Clinic

Diabetes mellitus is a disease associated with low levels of the hormone insulin and high blood sugar; with this disease, a dangerous metabolic disorder develops.

Types of diabetes

There are three types of diabetes mellitus: type 1 – insulin-dependent diabetes, type 2 diabetes – non-insulin-dependent diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

In the first type of diabetes, insulin is produced extremely insufficiently or not at all, so the patient constantly feels the need to inject an insulin-containing drug. This type of diabetes requires special attention, as it has the ability to develop very quickly. Symptoms of diabetes in this case can be intense thirst, weight loss, weakness, loss of appetite, or vice versa, a strong appetite, bad breath, frequent urination, etc. The causes of this type of diabetes can be both external and internal factors, including viral infections and psycho-emotional factors.

Type II diabetes mellitus is characterized by gradual development. In this case, the production of insulin does not stop, but the pancreas does not produce enough of it, so the disease develops imperceptibly and is most often detected during preventive visits to the doctor. The development of type 2 diabetes is accompanied by urinary tract infections, some weight loss, and thirst.

Diabetes mellitus of the third type, or gestational diabetes, occurs in pregnant women.Often, immediately after childbirth, the blood sugar level stabilizes, however, the woman gets a predisposition to the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Treatment

Diabetes mellitus cannot be cured. The achievements of medical science at the present stage can only compensate for diabetes mellitus, influencing the decrease in blood sugar levels.

With the greatest degree of confidence in diagnosing diabetes mellitus, a blood test to determine the level of glycated hemoglobin is capable of.Also, a method for diagnosing diabetes mellitus is a blood sugar test. Doctors strongly advise every person to carry out such an analysis annually, especially to those who have a family history of diabetes mellitus, people who are obese, and people who have crossed the threshold of forty-five years.

Diabetes treatment directly depends on the type of disease. If a patient is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, then the treatment formula is relatively simple. He is treated with insulin, the doses of which must be calculated as accurately as possible by the doctor.

In cases of type 2 diabetes, the basis of treatment will be an individually tailored diet and treatment regimen.

Diabetes mellitus is fraught with complications that arise due to neglect of the disease or due to improperly prescribed treatment. Damage to the eyes, nerve endings of the lower extremities, the digestive tract, heart and other organs – these are the consequences that diabetes mellitus may face in an unfavorable combination of circumstances.

What is endocrinology? Articles about the treatment of animals. Veterinary clinic Aist-vet, Butovo, Moscow

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What is endocrinology? 08/16/2016 14:34

Why is it overlooked or overlooked for an accurate diagnosis? How to recognize from the many clinical signs of pet discomfort exactly those that indicate a problem in the endocrine system?

I will try to answer these questions in this article.Science of Endocrinology ”studies the structure and function of the endocrine glands, the hormones they produce, about the causes of problems with the endocrine system and the effect on the body of animals, about diseases caused by disruption of the endocrine system or the action of these hormones. It sounds quite clever and not everyone will immediately understand, except for the doctor, what it is about. But the concept of “hormone” in our time, almost everyone is “heard”. And the common man in the street has different associations with this term. Both negative (from hormones overweight) and positive (hormones of happiness, love, joy).But both those and other manifestations in animals and humans are initially reduced to the work of the endocrine system. It is the SYSTEM, and not a separate organ that produces this or that hormone. The body of an animal, exactly like a person, is the interconnected work of all organs, including the endocrine glands. And considering the problem of one organ or gland will not lead to a positive result in treatment.

About Hormones

Using the example of one of my patients, I will try to answer all of the above questions.

Animal dog, Labrador breed, 9 years old. The owners went to the veterinary clinic for the advice of a dermatologist. But, collecting the anamnesis of the animal, it becomes clear that the problem is not only in the problems of dermatology.

I’ll start with a preface so that the development of events is clear.

Some time ago (around the end of spring-April-May), the owners of the animal visited the veterinary clinic “X” (let’s call it that) with a complaint about the presence of a breast seal in the animal (or rather, the presence of a neoplasm on it).Upon examination, the doctor made a diagnosis: a neoplasm of the mammary gland against a background of hormonal imbalance. As a treatment, it was proposed to promptly remove this pathology and at the same time remove the uterus and ovaries, since the production of sex hormones by the ovaries can provoke further growth of neoplasms on the mammary gland. And everything would be fine (such operations are performed quite often and are considered common among veterinarians and rarely lead to complications) if it were not for the haste of specialists in making the verdict: breast cancer (without confirmation of this neoplasm by histological analysis).

The diagnosis sounded like a bolt from the blue to dog owners.

One can imagine the state of people for whom their animal is not just an animal living with them in the same house, but in fact, a member of their family. And they are ready to go to great lengths for the health of their pet. Including for chemotherapy offered by an oncologist (all the same clinic “X”). At the request of the owner (!!!), and not at the insistence of the doctor, a fragment of the neoplasm was sent to the laboratory to confirm or refute the malignancy of the neoplasm.Only it was too late…. A course of chemotherapy was prescribed and administered. A second followed. And what a surprise it was when the results of histology came – the neoplasm is GOOD! But there was also disappointment – TWO courses of chemotherapy!

Total : the animal’s immunity is lower than that of a puppy, alopecia (baldness) throughout the body, polydipsia (thirst, such that it will give everything for a sip), exhaustion up to 25 kg (this is something for a Labrador!).

What can a veterinarian do in this situation?

And in such a sad state, the animal came to me.After hearing the owner’s entire story about the animal, it was recommended to pass several specific tests. Including the level of cortisol with a small dexamethasone test, the ratio of cortisol and creatinine in the urine. You may ask why these tests are specific. The answer will be based on an analysis of all those manipulations and actions with the animal that happened to him before he appeared at my appointment.

Namely: OGE (sterilization), resection of the lobe of the breast affected by the tumor, chemotherapy (2 courses).And since the endocrine glands were affected (removal of the ovaries), then first of all it is necessary to consider the functionality of other components of the endocrine system: the adrenal cortex, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas.

Gradually, by elimination, these analyzes were selected. Based on the test results, a preliminary diagnosis was made: hyperadrenocarticism. It remains only to differentiate which one. After receiving the rest of the test results, the final diagnosis was made: pituitary hyperadrenocarticism.

A treatment regimen has been developed specifically for this animal. Within 7-10 days, the animal took drugs aimed at regulating the work of the pituitary gland.

Re-delivery of analyzes. Result: slowly but surely, we approached the physiological norm of indicators (the ratio of cortisol / creatinine in the urine decreased 20 times). The animal also took drugs to maintain the correct microflora in the intestine. But the most visible result of the treatment is that the animal has reduced its water consumption (it may even not drink enough).And weight gain by a whole kilogram))). At first glance, this may seem like a small amount, but it is better than weight loss. This means that the body begins to cope and recover on its own.

At the moment, the animal feels satisfactory. Control tests and treatment adjustments.

I will not present the treatment regimen. For each animal, it is worked out individually !!!

First-class doctors work in the Aist-Vet clinic. Contact us and we will help your pets.And I would like to wish all animal owners: be a little more attentive to your four-legged friends. And I wish my wards health and look forward to our meetings only during the period of the next vaccination)))

90,000 To cure diabetes in Samara and Togliatti – the newest and unconventional methods of treatment

The endocrine system plays a special role among the regulatory systems of the human body. The endocrine system performs its functions through the hormones it produces, which enter all organs and tissues of the body, penetrating through the intercellular substance directly into the cells, or are carried through the biological system with the blood.Some of the endocrine cells are collected together and form the endocrine glands – the glandular apparatus. But in addition to this, almost any tissue of the body contains endocrine cells. A group of endocrine cells scattered throughout the body form a diffuse part of the endocrine system.

Functions of the endocrine system and its importance for the body:

• coordinates the work of all organs and systems of the body;
• participates in chemical reactions in the body;
• is responsible for the stability of all vital processes of the body in conditions of changes in the external environment;
• , together with the immune and nervous systems, regulates human growth, development of the body;
• participates in the regulation of the functioning of the human reproductive system and its sexual differentiation;
• is one of the energy generators in the body;
• participates in the formation of human emotional reactions and in his mental behavior.

The structure of the endocrine system and diseases associated with a violation in the functioning of its constituent elements.

I. Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands (endocrine glands), which together make up the glandular part of the endocrine system, produce hormones – specific regulatory chemicals.

The endocrine glands include:

Thyroid gland. Is the largest endocrine gland. Produces hormones – thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin. Thyroid hormones are involved in the regulation of the processes of growth, development, differentiation of tissues, increase the intensity of metabolism, the level of oxygen consumption by organs and tissues.

Diseases of the endocrine system associated with a violation of the functioning of the thyroid gland: hypothyroidism, myxedema (extreme form of hypothyroidism) thyrotoxicosis, cretinism (dementia), Hashimoto’s goiter, Basedow’s disease (diffuse toxic goiter), thyroid cancer.

Parathyroid glands. Produces parathyroid hormone, which is responsible for the concentration of calcium, which is essential for the normal functioning of the nervous and motor systems.

Diseases of the endocrine system associated with a violation of the parathyroid glands – hyperparathyroidism, hypercalcemia, parathyroid osteodystrophy (Recklinghausen’s disease).

Thymus (thymus). It produces T cells of the immune system, secretes thymopoietins – hormones responsible for the maturation and functional activity of mature cells of the immune system.In fact, we can say that the thymus is involved in such a vital process as the production and regulation of immunity.

In this regard, it can be argued with a high degree of probability that diseases of the endocrine system associated with disorders in the functioning of the thymus gland are diseases of the immune system. And the importance of immunity for the human body can hardly be overestimated.

Pancreas. Is an organ of the digestive system.It produces two antagonist hormones – insulin and glucagon. Insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood, glucagon increases it.

Both hormones are involved in the regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism. And for this reason, diseases associated with disorders in the functioning of the pancreas include diabetes and all its consequences, as well as problems associated with excess weight.

Adrenal glands. Serves as the main source of adrenaline and norepinephrine.

Dysfunction of the adrenal glands leads to the widest range of diseases, including serious diseases, which at first glance are not related to diseases of the endocrine system – vascular diseases, heart disease, hypertension, myocardial infarction.

Ovaries. Are a structural element of the female reproductive system. The endocrine functions of the ovaries include the production of the main female sex hormone antagonists – estrogens and progesterone, thus being responsible for the functioning of a woman’s reproductive function.Diseases of the endocrine system associated with functional disorders of the ovaries – fibroids, mastopathy, ovarian cysts, endometriosis, infertility, ovarian cancer.

Testicles. Are structural elements of the male reproductive system. male germ cells (sperm) and steroid hormones, mainly testosterone. Ovarian dysfunction leads to various disorders in the male body, including male infertility.

2. The endocrine system in its diffuse part is represented by the following glands:

• Pituitary gland – an extremely important gland of the diffuse endocrine system, is actually its central organ.The pituitary gland of the dough interacts with the hypothalamus, forming the pituitary-hypothalamic system. The pituitary gland produces hormones that stimulate and control virtually all other glands in the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary gland produces 6 important hormones called dominant – thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 4 gonadotropic hormones that regulate the functions of the gonads and another very important hormone – somatotropin, also called growth hormone.This hormone is the main factor affecting the growth of the skeletal system, cartilage and muscles. Excessive production of growth hormone in an adult leads to agrokemalia, which manifests itself in an increase in the bones, limbs and face. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland regulates the interaction of hormones produced by the pineal gland.
• Epiphysis. Is a source of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the body’s water balance, and oxytocin, which is responsible for the contraction of smooth muscles, including the uterus, during childbirth.It also secretes substances of a hormonal nature – melatonin and norepinephrine. Melatonin is a hormone that controls the sequence of sleep phases, and norepinephrine affects the circulatory system and the nervous system. Based on the foregoing, it follows that the significance of the functional status of the endocrine system is difficult to overestimate. The spectrum of diseases of the endocrine system (caused by functional disorders of the endocrine system) is very wide. In our opinion, only with an integrated approach to the body, used at the Center for Energy Information Medicine, is it possible with a high degree of accuracy to identify all the disorders in the human body, and, taking into account the individual characteristics of the patient, to develop effective measures for their correction.

Our Center has developed a special program for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the endocrine system.

Diagnostic program “Harmony of hormones” allows:

– Identify the main causes of problems in the endocrine system. We do not determine the amount of hormones in the blood, but this is not as important for the body as the activity of hormones in the tissues, since the normal amount of the hormone in the blood may not be delivered to the cells, or not be perceived by receptors, etc.e. Our equipment makes it possible to see how the hormone works on site.

– Get an individual program (treatment plan with specific recommendations) for outpatient treatment of the endocrine system. The treatment will be carried out by the body itself. The equipment and the doctor will help to correctly configure all systems interested in this process.

Doctor TSEIM Skoroumova M.G.

Treatment of diseases of the endocrine system:

The main methods for eliminating diseases of the endocrine system:

Computer diagnostics of the body and treatment in Samara

Modern methods of computer diagnostics make it possible not only to assess the state of health, but also to find specific causes of ailments.Professional computer diagnostics of the body in Samara will not cost you much, but it will become the starting point for effective and correct treatment.
Computer diagnostics is based on the effect of bioresonance. Grade

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