How does the endocrine system regulate bodily functions. What are the main organs involved in hormone production. Which glands play crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis. How do hormones affect growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

The Intricate Web of Endocrine Glands: A Comprehensive Overview

The endocrine system is a marvel of biological engineering, orchestrating a complex symphony of hormones that regulate numerous bodily functions. This network of glands and organs works tirelessly to maintain homeostasis, influence growth and development, and control various metabolic processes. Understanding the main components of this system is crucial for appreciating its profound impact on our overall health and well-being.

What constitutes the endocrine tissue?

Endocrine tissue comprises a diverse array of glands responsible for producing and releasing hormones. These chemical messengers play pivotal roles in:

• Regulating metabolic processes
• Maintaining water and electrolyte balance
• Guiding maturation and growth
• Controlling reproductive functions

The key players in this hormonal orchestra include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, gonads, and pancreas.

How do hormones reach their target organs?

Hormones primarily travel through the bloodstream to reach their intended destinations. However, their journey doesn’t end there. For hormones to exert their effects, target organs must possess specific receptors that recognize and respond to these chemical signals. This lock-and-key mechanism ensures that hormones only influence the cells and tissues they’re meant to regulate.

Interestingly, not all hormonal actions require long-distance travel. Some hormones act locally through:

1. Paracrine signaling: affecting nearby cells in the immediate vicinity
2. Autocrine signaling: influencing the very cells that produced them through direct feedback

This diverse range of signaling methods allows for precise control and rapid responses within the endocrine system.

The Hypothalamus: The Master Conductor of Endocrine Function

At the heart of the endocrine system lies the hypothalamus, a small but mighty structure in the brain that serves as the central coordinating unit for hormonal regulation. This remarkable gland orchestrates the intricate dance of hormones throughout the body, acting as both a producer and a regulator.

What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?

The hypothalamus is responsible for synthesizing two main categories of hormones:

1. Control hormones: These include releasing hormones (liberins) and inhibiting hormones (statins), which regulate the function of other endocrine glands.
2. Effector hormones: These directly influence various bodily processes.

Some of the key hormones produced by the hypothalamus include:

• Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Somatostatin (GHIH)
• Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
• Dopamine (PIH)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

This diverse array of hormones allows the hypothalamus to exert control over numerous bodily functions, from fluid balance to growth and reproduction.

The Pituitary Gland: A Tiny Powerhouse with Far-Reaching Effects

Often referred to as the “master gland,” the pituitary gland works in close concert with the hypothalamus to regulate hormone release throughout the body. This pea-sized structure is divided into two distinct regions, each with its own unique functions and hormone production capabilities.

How does the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) function?

The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis, is responsible for producing and releasing several crucial hormones under the regulation of hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors. These hormones include:

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Prolactin
• Growth hormone (GH)

The release of these hormones is carefully controlled by the hypothalamus through its production of liberins (releasing hormones) and statins (inhibiting hormones). This intricate feedback system ensures that hormone levels are maintained within optimal ranges to support various bodily functions.

What is the role of the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)?

Unlike its anterior counterpart, the posterior pituitary, or neurohypophysis, doesn’t produce hormones directly. Instead, it serves as a storage and release site for two important hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus:

1. Oxytocin: Known for its role in childbirth and lactation, as well as social bonding
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Crucial for regulating water balance in the body

The neurohypophysis controls the release of these hormones into the bloodstream as needed, allowing for rapid responses to physiological demands.

The Pineal Gland: A Light-Sensitive Regulator of Circadian Rhythms

Often overlooked, the pineal gland plays a crucial role in regulating our body’s internal clock and various time-dependent rhythms. This small, pine cone-shaped structure is more than just a gland; it’s a light-sensing organ intricately connected to our visual system and the sympathetic nervous system.

How does the pineal gland respond to light?

The pineal gland receives information about environmental light levels directly from the retina through a complex neural pathway. This connection allows the gland to synchronize its hormone production with the natural light-dark cycle, effectively acting as our body’s internal timekeeper.

What is the primary hormone produced by the pineal gland?

The pineal gland’s main hormone output is melatonin, often referred to as the “sleep hormone.” Melatonin production is highest during darkness and lowest during daylight hours. This cyclical production pattern helps regulate:

• The sleep-wake cycle
• Seasonal rhythms
• Other time-dependent biological processes

By modulating melatonin levels in response to light cues, the pineal gland plays a crucial role in maintaining our circadian rhythms and overall physiological balance.

The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands: Regulators of Metabolism and Calcium Balance

Located in the neck, the thyroid and parathyroid glands work in tandem to regulate crucial aspects of our metabolism and mineral balance. These glands produce hormones that influence nearly every cell in the body, highlighting their importance in maintaining overall health.

What are the main functions of the thyroid gland?

The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland is primarily responsible for producing two key hormones:

1. Thyroxine (T4)
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)

These hormones play crucial roles in:

• Regulating metabolism
• Controlling heart rate
• Influencing body temperature
• Supporting proper growth and development

The thyroid gland absorbs iodine from the bloodstream to synthesize these hormones, storing them for release as needed. Additionally, the thyroid produces calcitonin, a hormone that helps lower blood calcium levels by promoting calcium incorporation into bones and reducing its absorption from food.

How do the parathyroid glands contribute to calcium regulation?

The four small parathyroid glands, located on the posterior surface of the thyroid, produce parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is essential for maintaining proper calcium and phosphate levels in the body. PTH acts by:

• Increasing calcium absorption from the intestines
• Promoting calcium release from bones
• Reducing calcium excretion by the kidneys

Through these actions, PTH helps maintain the delicate balance of calcium in the bloodstream, which is crucial for numerous physiological processes, including muscle contraction, nerve signaling, and bone health.

The Adrenal Glands: Multitasking Organs for Stress Response and Homeostasis

Perched atop each kidney, the adrenal glands are small but mighty organs that play a vital role in our body’s stress response and overall homeostasis. These glands are composed of two distinct regions, each producing a unique set of hormones that influence various bodily functions.

What are the main components of the adrenal glands?

The adrenal glands consist of two primary functional units:

1. Adrenal cortex: The outer layer responsible for producing steroid hormones
2. Adrenal medulla: The inner core that secretes catecholamines

This structural division allows the adrenal glands to produce a diverse array of hormones, each with specific roles in maintaining physiological balance.

Which hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?

The adrenal cortex synthesizes several classes of steroid hormones:

• Glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol): Regulate metabolism, immune function, and stress response
• Mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone): Control electrolyte balance and blood pressure
• Androgens: Contribute to secondary sex characteristics and libido

These hormones are primarily released in response to stimulation from the pituitary gland, with the exception of mineralocorticoids, which are regulated by the renin-angiotensin system.

What is the role of the adrenal medulla?

The adrenal medulla is responsible for producing catecholamines, primarily:

1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

These hormones are crucial components of the body’s “fight or flight” response, preparing the body for action in stressful situations by:

• Increasing heart rate and blood pressure
• Dilating airways to improve oxygen intake
• Redirecting blood flow to essential organs and muscles
• Mobilizing energy reserves

The adrenal medulla’s rapid response to stress complements the slower, more sustained actions of the adrenal cortex hormones, providing a comprehensive physiological adaptation to challenging situations.

The Gonads: Orchestrators of Reproductive Function and Sexual Development

The gonads, comprising the testes in males and ovaries in females, are essential endocrine organs that play a dual role in the body. Not only do they produce gametes (sperm or eggs) for reproduction, but they also secrete sex hormones that regulate sexual development, secondary sex characteristics, and reproductive functions.

How do the ovaries contribute to female reproductive function?

The ovaries are dynamic organs that respond to hormonal signals from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, primarily follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Throughout the menstrual cycle, the ovaries undergo changes that involve:

1. Follicular development: Maturing oocytes produce increasing amounts of estrogen
2. Ovulation: Triggered by a surge in LH, releasing a mature egg
3. Corpus luteum formation: After ovulation, this structure produces progesterone and estrogen

These hormonal fluctuations prepare the female reproductive organs for potential fertilization and implantation. The ovaries also produce inhibin, which helps regulate FSH secretion from the pituitary gland, creating a complex feedback system.

What is the role of the testes in male endocrine function?

The testes, like the ovaries, are under the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. They are responsible for:

• Producing testosterone: The primary male sex hormone
• Synthesizing inhibin: Helps regulate FSH production
• Generating small amounts of estrogen: Important for bone health and libido

Testosterone plays a crucial role in:

1. Developing and maintaining male secondary sex characteristics
2. Supporting sperm production
3. Regulating muscle mass and bone density
4. Influencing mood and cognitive function

The interplay between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes ensures proper regulation of male reproductive function and overall health.

The endocrine system’s intricate network of glands and organs demonstrates the remarkable complexity of human physiology. From the hypothalamus acting as the master conductor to the specialized functions of each gland, this system maintains a delicate balance crucial for our survival and well-being. Understanding the roles of these endocrine organs provides valuable insights into how our bodies regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress responses. As research in endocrinology continues to advance, we gain an ever-deeper appreciation for the sophisticated mechanisms that keep our bodies functioning harmoniously.

Endocrine Tissue

Production and release of hormones

The endocrine tissue is a complex of various glands that produce hormones involved in bodily processes such as metabolic processes, water and electrolyte balance, maturation, growth and reproduction. Endocrine tissue includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, gonads and pancreas. Hormones are mostly distributed via the bloodstream. In order for the hormones to ultimately act on the target organ, the target organs each have specific receptors. Some hormones act paracrine in the immediate vicinity or within the secreting gland, others unfold their effect autocrine by direct feedback to the hormone-producing gland.

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Hypothalamus

the coordinating unit

The central coordinating unit of the organizational units (regulatory circuits) of the endocrine system is located in the hypothalamus. In the hypothalamus, the production of control and effector hormones takes place, whereby the control hormones are further subdivided into releasing and inhibiting hormones. These hormones include: Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), Corticoliberin (CRH), Gonadoliberin (GnRH), Somatoliberin (GHRH), Somatostatin (GHIH), Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), Dopamine (PIH), Thyroliberin (TRH).

Pituitary gland

regulated release of hormones from the hypothalamus

The pituitary gland located near the hypothalamus and is composed of the fundamentally different adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) and neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary). In the adenohypophysis, the release of glandular hormones (ACTH, TSH, FSH and prolactin) and glandular hormones (growth hormones), which are previously produced in the hypothalamus, is regulated.  This hormone release is regulated by releasing hormones (liberins) and inhibiting hormones (statins). The neurohypophysis is the storage site for the hormones oxytocin and ADH produced in the hypothalamus and regulates the release of these hormones into the bloodstream as required.

Pineal gland

light-sensitive hormone secretion

The pineal gland is primarily not a gland, but a hormone-producing light-sensing organ that is involved in the sympathetic nervous system and receives information about brightness from the retina via photoreceptor cells. Depending on the light impulse, the pineal gland secretes melatonin and thus affects the sleep-wake rhythm and other time-dependent rhythms.

Thyroid and parathyroid gland

growth promotion, intervention in metabolism and regulation of calcium levels

The thyroid gland (glandula thyroidea) is a butterfly-shaped organ located just anterior to the trachea below the larynx, with the four parathyroid glands located posteriorly. The thyroid gland absorbs iodine from the blood and uses it to produce the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and tetraiodothyronine (T3), which are stored and released when needed. Furthermore, the thyroid gland is responsible for calcitonin production, which promotes calcium incorporation into the bones as well as reduces its resorption from food (lowering calcium levels). The parathyroid glands are epithelial corpuscles about 5 mm in size that produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which contributes to the regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism.

Adrenal glands

regulation of blood pressure, electrolyte balance and stress response

The adrenal glands consist of the two functional units adrenal medulla and cortex and is located at the upper pole of the kidneys. Their main function is the production of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and sex hormones, which are released after stimulation by the hormones of the pituitary gland (except mineral corticoids). The glucocorticoids inhibit the immune defense as well as inflammatory processes and contribute to the provision of energy by fat and protein breakdown and glycogenesis. Mineral corticoids have a paracrine effect in the kidney and influence blood pressure through reabsorption of water and sodium and increased calcium secretion. Furthermore, androgens such as estrogens and progestin and catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced in the adrenal gland.

Gonads

regulation of sexual development

Under gonads the exocrine units testis and ovaries are summarized. The hormonal action of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland (FSH and LH), causes a change in the ovary, whereby the oocytes maturing within it increasingly produce estrogen until ovulation. If LH secretion occurs, ovulation is ultimately triggered and the female sexual organs are prepared to receive sperm. Once ovulation is complete, a corpus luteum develops, which produces progesterone and another form of estrogen while inhibiting the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The male testis, like the ovary, is controlled by hormones (FSH and LH) from the pituitary gland. It contains the Leydig intermediate cells, which produce the male sex hormone testosterone, and the Sertoli cells, which produce inhibin and an androgen-binding protein (ABP) and are important for spermatogenesis.

Pancreas

provision of digestive enzymes

The pancreas contains endocrine cells, which are grouped together as an islet organ. These consist of individual islets of Langerhans, which produce the hormones insulin and glucagon, among others. Insulin secretion leads to lowers blood glucose levels by storing sugar in the liver, fatty tissue and skeletal muscle, and by directly breaking down the sugar present while simultaneously producing energy (glycolysis).

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Your one minute guide to the endocrine system

What is it, how do I remember it all and how on earth do I pronounce it? We can help…

What is it?

The endrocrine system’s primary aim is to maintain a stable and balanced internal environment, known as homeostasis. It does this by regulating bodily functions such as metabolism, growth and sexual development. It works through a series of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones travel to the organs and tissues of the body where they bind to the receptor cells, which are protein molecules embedded in the membrane or cytoplasm of the cell. The cells are encouraged to develop and act in certain ways according to the signals that the hormone transmits to them.

It is these hormones which determine the development of sexual characteristics in puberty. They also determine how energy is stored and used in the body, as well as how the body controls fluid, salt and sugar levels in the blood. It takes only a very small level of hormones to trigger significant reactions in the body. When the chemical or nutrient level is too high or low, the endocrine glands secrete more hormones until the balance has been restored. Depending on what kind of information it receives, the endocrine glands can start and stop the secretion of hormones in to the blood stream.

There are eight major glands that help in the functioning of the endocrine system. These are the pituitary gland, hypothalmus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pineal body and the reproductive glands (testes and ovaries).

The pituitary gland is integral to the whole system. Situated in the base of the brain, it produces and secretes hormones according to the internal and external changes that affect the body. The hypothalamus, which is another brain based gland, notifies the pituitary gland of these changes.  

The pituitary gland consists of two parts, the anterior and the posterior lobes. The anterior lobe regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals and the reproductive glands. The posterior lobe produces oxytocin, which is responsible for uterine contractions and lactation, and vasopressin which promotes water reabsorption and increasing blood volume.

The thyroid gland enables the body to generate energy and regulate its temperature. It produces two hormones called triiodothyronine and thyronine, also known as T3 and T4.

Attached to the thyroid are four smaller glands known as the parathyroids. They regulate the level of calcium in the blood by releasing the parathyroid hormone, which combines with calcitinin, a hormone produced by the thyroid.  

The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys. They produce four hormones in total, which include glucocortoids, mineralocortoids, androgen and catecholamines. Glucocorticoids help to protect against stress, while mineralocorticoids work to maintain the right level of sodium in your body. Androgen helps to maintain muscle and body density, as well as general wellbeing. Catecholamines are stop the body from crashing in “flight or fight” situations.

The reproductive glands help to develop sexual characteristics at puberty, and they also facilitate reproductive functions such as the menstrual cycle. For men, their reproductive glands are situated in the testes, and they produce a hormone called testosterone. For women, their reproductive glands are based in the ovaries, and they produce oestrogen and progesterone.

The pineal body is located in the centre of the brain, and it secretes Melatonin which controls the body’s sleeping cycles.

The pancreas is also involved in the endocrine system, eventhough it isn’t a gland. It produces two important hormones known as insulin and glucagon, which control the level of glucose in the blood. When the pancreas fails to secrete these hormones it can lead to diabetes.

Five Quick Facts

1. There are 30 different hormones in the body, each with their own function.
2. The endocrine system has no ducts at all. It relies on the bloodstream to transfer all of the hormones it produces to different parts of the body.
3. The exocrine glands are different from the endocrine glands, because they excrete hormones by way of a duct to the external environment. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands and mammary glands.
4. Failures in the endocrine system can lead to  variety of diseases related to reproduction, development and hormone maintenance. For example, if it produces too much growth hormone this can lead to diseases such as gigantism. Too little growth hormone can lead to growth hormone deficiency – where children grow more slowly than others. Diabetes, osteoporosis and polycystic ovary syndrome are some other examples of endocrine-related conditions.
5. The endocrine and the nervous system work together to regulate bodily functions. The nervous system stimulates the hypothalmus, which in turn triggers the pituitary gland to release hormones.

Hint to learning the system

It’s easier to remember how the system works if you think of it like a computer, in the sense that it sends information in the same way. The hypothalmus is like the mouse, it responds to external stimuli to initiate change. The pituitary is like the hard drive, it processes the stimuli and sends out hormones (information) to different areas of the body to effect the desired changes.

If you are struggling to remember all of the different glands involved in the endocrine system, think of  a mnemonic device to make it easier. Why not try – HPPTPAPO – hypothalmus, pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas and ovary.

Pronounciation Guide

• Endocrine: (en-doh-krin)
• Pituitary: (pit-too-uh-ter-ee)
• Hypothalmus: (hahy-puh-thal-uh-muhs)
• Thyroid: (thy-royd)
• Parathyroid: (par-uh-thahy-royd)
• Ovary: (oh-vuh-ree)
• Testes: (tes-teez)
• Pineal: (pin-ee-uh-l)
• Adrenal: (uh-dree-nul)
• Adrenaline: (uh-dren-nuh-lin)
• Pancreas: (pan-kree-us)
• Diabetes: (dye-uh-bee-teehs)
• Glucose: (gloo-kose)
• Endocrinologist: (en-doh-krin-all-oh-jist)
• Anterior: (an-teer-ee-er)
• Posterior: (po-steer-ee-er)
• Oxytocin: (ok-si-toh-suhn)
• Vasopressin: (vas-oh-pres-in)
• Triiodothyronine: (trahy-ahy-oh-doh-thahy-ruh-neen)
• Thyronine: (thy-roh-nine)
• Glucocorticoid: (gloo-koh-kawr-ti-koid)
• Mineralocorticoid: (min-er-uh-loh-kawr-ti-koid)
• Androgen: (an-druh-juhn)
• Catecholamine: (kat-i-kol-uh-meen)
• Melatonin: (mel-uh-toh-nin)
• Insulin: (in-suh-lin)
• Glucagon: (gloo-kuh-gon)
• .

The main types of female hormones and their role for health

Hormones are biologically active substances that ensure the coordinated work of all vital systems of the body. They are produced by certain endocrine glands and individual cells located in various organs and tissues. For example, the most important hormones for a woman’s health are produced by the ovaries, the gastric mucosa, and subcutaneous fatty tissue. Then they penetrate into the systemic circulation, and then bind to receptors that are sensitive to these bioactive substances. So in the body there is an exchange of information between organs and systems, the regulatory function of the central nervous system is ensured.

The female body has long been considered more dependent on the qualitative and quantitative composition of hormones in it. In fact, this is not so – men also react negatively to an imbalance that arises for one reason or another. There are two objective reasons for the existence of such an erroneous opinion.

Firstly, hormones regulate the monthly cycle, and in women during this period, both physical and psycho-emotional state usually worsens. Secondly, conception, pregnancy and delivery are controlled precisely by hormones that are constantly produced by the endocrine system, and this function is performed by the female body.

About the main female hormones

There are no hormones that are biosynthesized only in the female or only in the male body. After all, each of them is needed for the exchange of information by various systems. Even traditionally considered female estrogen, progesterone in a small amount is constantly present in the male body. However, like testosterone – in the female.

Estrogens are hormones produced in the ovaries. This process begins with puberty and continues until the onset of natural menopause. The amount of estrogen varies depending on the phase of the menstrual cycle. Bioactive substances regulate their change, and also perform a number of other important functions:

• protection of blood vessels from the formation of cholesterol blocks inside them, normalization of the lipid profile;
• regulation of water-salt metabolism;
• skin firming;
• regulation of the growth of various organs, modulation of their current activity;
• launching or suspending certain functions for a while;
• regulation of the activity of glands that produce sebaceous secretions.

The most important function of these hormones is osteogenesis. Under their influence and control, new bone tissues are formed, and the calcium and phosphorus necessary for the strength of the skeleton are assimilated. Not without reason, in the menopause, against the background of a decrease in estrogen production, osteoporosis develops – a formidable disease, manifested by a progressive decrease in bone density, which often leads to fractures with minimal injuries.

Progestogens, including progesterone, are no less important for the female body. Under the control of progesterone, the mammary glands are formed in childhood, the ability to conceive and carry a pregnancy is ensured. It is the progestogen deficiency that explains the pain during menstruation and the general discomfort that premenstrual syndrome manifests itself.

The relationship of female sex hormones has long been established, their impact on the biochemical processes occurring in the body has been determined. Only a person with a special medical education is able to detect and eliminate the imbalance that has arisen, to find out its cause. Therefore, only a doctor should be involved in making a diagnosis, prescribing hormonal drugs. Self-medication, the use of folk remedies in this case will not only not have the desired effect, but will also bring significant harm to health. After all, hormonal imbalance often becomes a prerequisite for the development of formidable diseases. The endocrine system is a delicate mechanism that does not tolerate gross interference.

Leading signs of hormonal disorders

Hormonal disorders are manifested by frequent mood swings, irritability, tearfulness, in the premenstrual and menstrual period – a decrease in the quality of sleep. Similar symptoms indicate an imbalance between estrogens and progestogens. Here you need qualified medical assistance from a gynecologist, endocrinologist, gynecologist-endocrinologist. The doctor will select the most effective method of therapy aimed at eliminating disorders, improving well-being, and preventing complications.

Common endocrine disorders

Prerequisites for the development of diseases of the endocrine organs are both insufficient and excessive production of hormones. These bioactive substances are links between various life systems. Therefore, a decrease in the functional activity of the endocrine system leads to a malfunction in the work of others. To prevent the development of pathology will allow the appeal to the doctor at the first, yet mild discomfort.

Reproductive problems

Endocrine glands constantly biosynthesize hormones, and each of them has an effect on the reproductive system. Female infertility can be caused by hormonally active pituitary tumors, disorders of the secretory function of the thyroid gland or adrenal glands, various inflammatory or degenerative diseases that affect the endocrine organs. In order to timely diagnose these serious pathologies, a thorough examination of the patient by an endocrinologist is required. This is the only way to find out and eliminate the cause of infertility or miscarriage.

The menstrual cycle is often disturbed due to functional disorders of the endocrine glands. Timely detection of these violations allows them to be successfully corrected, avoiding negative consequences.

Quite often, patients are found to have polycystic ovary syndrome, which causes disruptions in the menstrual cycle. It manifests itself in increased hair growth in the face, abdomen, chest, acne. The pathology is treated by a tandem of an endocrinologist and a gynecologist. As it develops, the ovarian capsules become denser, the processes of production of female sex hormones are upset. The disease is usually provoked by a violation of the secretory function of the ovaries or adrenal glands, or by a malfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary system. In any case, the result is an imbalance between female and male sex hormones with a predominance of the latter, as a result – the inability to conceive and (or) bear a pregnancy.

Fluctuations in body weight

Obesity or sudden weight loss for no apparent reason can be triggered by severe endocrine diseases – diffuse toxic goiter, adrenal insufficiency, diabetes mellitus. There is also an inverse relationship. There are frequent cases when, against the background of low weight in the absence of any endocrine pathology, there is an acute shortage of female sex hormones, since a certain amount of them is synthesized in the subcutaneous adipose tissue.

A similar situation is observed in obesity. An excess of adipose tissue causes a decrease in the amount of estrogens and a decrease in their functional activity. It is not surprising that obese women have impaired reproductive functions, and ovulation is less common. And also the endometrium changes pathologically, predisposing to the development of cancer, spontaneous abortion, its complicated course, problems with delivery.

Therefore, an important part of the treatment of reproductive disorders is a series of measures aimed at gradual weight loss. This helps to optimize the hormonal profile, restore the menstrual cycle, increase the frequency of pregnancies by about a third.

In our clinic, menstrual disorders, infertility associated with obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome are treated according to special individual programs. With the help of a reduction diet, physical activity and drug therapy, weight is normalized. At the same time, disturbed menstrual functions are restored. Hormone therapy is carried out only in cases where weight loss has not given the desired result.

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a complex and serious pathology of the endocrine system associated with metabolic disorders. Women suffering from it very often have difficulties both with conception and with carrying a pregnancy. Doctors strongly recommend that such patients undergo a complete medical examination, if possible, compensate for diabetes mellitus, and achieve a state in which glucose levels can be kept as close to normal as possible. Specialists necessarily monitor the well-being of a woman during all nine months of pregnancy, including according to diagnostic data.

Menopausal disorders

Menopause is marked by a variety of anatomical, physiological and psychological changes. Natural menopause does not occur abruptly – estrogen production declines gradually over about 10 years (from 45 to 55). If at the initial stage the subjective and objective symptoms are weak, then their severity slowly but steadily increases, and the metabolism also changes. The course of menopause is complicated by hot flashes in the form of a feeling of heat, sudden mood swings, jumps in blood pressure. All these manifestations are successfully corrected by the supervising gynecologist both with the help of drug therapy and lifestyle correction.

Author

Bobryshev Yury Viktorovich

obstetrician-gynecologist, gynecological surgeon, intimate plastic surgeon

Experience 34 years

+7 (495) 032-15-21

Multispiral computed tomography in endocrine diseases

Various research methods are used to diagnose endocrine diseases. One of the informative ones is multislice computed tomography (MSCT) with minimal radiation and the most accurate results.
You can find out more about how the study is carried out and prices for SKT by clicking on the link.

Features of multislice computed tomography

The study is a modern kind of computed tomography. The main part of any tomograph is the Henry ring, inside of which there is a ray tube with sensors opposite. During the study, the movement of the tube and the table on which the patient is located are synchronized so that information from the required area is read in a spiral. Hence the name – spiral tomography.
Not one, but several detectors are installed on the tomograph for MSCT on the Henry ring, which significantly increases the information content, reduces radiation exposure, and the duration of the procedure. This is important for critically ill patients. MSCT is performed in the same way as standard tomography. This is a non-invasive modern technique that does not cause discomfort to the patient and allows you to explore all areas of the body.

MSCT diagnostics of diseases of the endocrine system

Multislice tomography is prescribed at the final stage of the examination, after radiography, ultrasound, scintigraphy and other studies. MSCT target:

• determination of the causes of the development of the disease in complex clinical cases;
• accurate assessment of the severity, prevalence, localization of the pathological process;
• obtaining information for surgical, conservative treatment.

Tomography is needed in the late postoperative period to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.

MSCT of the thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is considered to be a susceptible organ to radiation, therefore, ultrasound and MRI are advantageous, which are also highly informative. If there is not enough information, MSCT is prescribed. Indications for diagnosis:

• enlarged cervical lymph nodes;
• suspected or presence of a thyroid tumor;
• polycystic;
• detection of metastases in neighboring organs;
• unclear results on ultrasound;
• swallowing disorder;
• nodular goiter.

Based on the images, doctors diagnose an atypical location of the organ lobes, tumors, metastases to regional lymph nodes, impaired blood supply, changes in blood vessels, nodes, cysts and other pathologies.

MSCT of the adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are paired glands located above the upper lobes of the kidneys. They enter the endocrine system and produce hormones necessary for the full functioning of the body. Even minor deviations in their work can worsen a person’s condition, lead to problems with other organs and systems.
The doctor may refer to MSCT of the adrenal glands with the following complaints:

• sudden weight fluctuations for no apparent reason;
• fluctuations in blood pressure, palpitations;
• excessive sweating;
• infertility as a result of disorders of the pituitary-adrenal system;
• appearance of bronze spots on the skin;
• deepening of the voice in women, excessive growth of body hair;
• male breast enlargement.

Tomography can be used to detect tumors, adrenal cysts, Addison’s, Itsenko-Cushing’s syndromes, congenital anomalies, hyper-, hypoaldosteronism and other diseases.

MSCT in the diagnosis of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors (NET) are formed from cells of the same name, produce biologically active substances, the effect of which can give a diverse clinical picture and make diagnosis difficult. Cells are found in various organs, including the pancreas.

Imaging data allow differentiation of malignant, benign tumors, including cancer, insulinoma, glucagonoma, gastrinoma, vipoma. To identify focal formations, MSCT is prescribed with intravenous amplification – the introduction of a contrast agent, which significantly increases the information content of the study.

MSCT with contrast injection

The contrast agent allows to “illuminate” pathologically altered areas – it lingers, accumulates in altered tissues, which is perfectly visible on the pictures. For the study, water-soluble substances based on iodine are used, which are independently excreted from the body; to speed up the process, it is recommended to drink more water.
The introduction of contrast significantly expands the diagnostic possibilities. It allows you to accurately determine the localization of pathological areas and obtain their main characteristics, which is especially important when detecting tumors. Absolute contraindications to the administration of the drug are:

• allergic to iodine;
• pregnancy;
• renal insufficiency;
• myeloma;
• hyperthyroidism.

Eligibility for a contrast agent study is determined by creatinine testing. This important indicator reflects the condition of the kidneys, through which the drug is excreted from the body.

MSCT at the DonMed Clinic

MSCT can be done at the DonMed Diagnostic Center by appointment at a convenient time. They pass it without a doctor’s referral, but at the same time you need to know exactly which area to explore. You can first make an appointment with a general specialist in order to accurately determine the necessary studies based on complaints and examination.

Depending on the area to be investigated, advance preparation may be required. Diagnostics in the clinic takes place on modern equipment, which produces high-quality images. When conducting MSCT with contrast, the drug can be administered both before the examination and during its conduct.

The patient can pick up the images and a detailed description on the day of the examination in a convenient way – in person, by e-mail. To get detailed information about the services of the clinic, call the number indicated or fill out the feedback form on the website.

You can find out the prices for SKT in Rostov-on-Don by clicking on the link.

The staff of the medical center consists of experienced, competent doctors who constantly improve their skills and know everything about innovative diagnostic methods.