How many types of antibiotics exist. What are the main classifications of antibiotics. How do different antibiotics work against bacterial infections. What are common side effects of antibiotic use. Why is antibiotic resistance a growing concern.

The Six Main Classifications of Antibiotics

Antibiotics are powerful medications used to treat bacterial infections. While there are hundreds of specific antibiotic drugs, they can generally be classified into six main groups based on their mechanisms of action:

1. Penicillins
2. Cephalosporins
3. Aminoglycosides
4. Tetracyclines
5. Macrolides
6. Fluoroquinolones

Each class targets bacteria in different ways, allowing doctors to prescribe the most effective antibiotic for a particular infection. Understanding these classifications helps healthcare providers make informed decisions about treatment options.

When Are Antibiotics Necessary?

Antibiotics are not a one-size-fits-all solution for every illness. They are specifically designed to combat bacterial infections and are ineffective against viruses. Healthcare providers consider several factors before prescribing antibiotics:

• Severity of the infection
• Risk of complications
• Likelihood of the infection spreading
• Patient’s overall health and medical history

Are antibiotics always needed for bacterial infections? Not necessarily. Many mild bacterial infections can resolve on their own without antibiotic intervention. However, antibiotics may be crucial in cases where:

• The infection is unlikely to clear up without treatment
• There’s a risk of the infection spreading to others
• The recovery time without treatment would be excessively long
• There’s a significant risk of more serious complications

Proper Antibiotic Usage and Administration

Taking antibiotics correctly is crucial for their effectiveness and to minimize the risk of antibiotic resistance. Here are some key points to remember:

• Always follow the prescribed dosage and schedule
• Complete the entire course, even if you start feeling better
• Never share antibiotics with others
• Store antibiotics as directed on the packaging

How should you take antibiotics if you miss a dose? If you forget to take a dose, take it as soon as you remember, unless it’s almost time for your next dose. In that case, skip the missed dose and continue with your regular schedule. Never take a double dose to make up for a missed one.

Forms of Antibiotic Administration

Antibiotics come in various forms to treat different types of infections:

• Oral tablets, capsules, or liquids for most mild to moderate infections
• Topical creams, lotions, sprays, and drops for skin, eye, or ear infections
• Injections or intravenous drips for more serious infections

Common Side Effects of Antibiotic Use

While antibiotics are generally safe when used correctly, they can cause side effects in some people. Understanding these potential effects can help patients recognize and report any issues to their healthcare provider promptly.

What are the most common side effects of antibiotics?

• Nausea and vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Bloating and indigestion
• Skin rashes
• Yeast infections

In rare cases, some individuals may experience severe allergic reactions to antibiotics, particularly to penicillins and cephalosporins. These reactions can be life-threatening and require immediate medical attention.

Recognizing Severe Allergic Reactions

Symptoms of a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) may include:

• Difficulty breathing or wheezing
• Swelling of the face, lips, tongue, or throat
• Severe skin rash with itching, redness, or peeling
• Dizziness or fainting

If you experience any of these symptoms after taking an antibiotic, seek emergency medical care immediately.

Antibiotic Resistance: A Growing Global Concern

Antibiotic resistance is one of the most pressing public health issues of our time. It occurs when bacteria evolve to withstand the effects of antibiotics, making infections harder to treat.

Why is antibiotic resistance becoming more prevalent? Several factors contribute to this growing problem:

• Overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
• Incorrect prescribing practices
• Patients not completing their full course of antibiotics
• Lack of new antibiotic development

The consequences of antibiotic resistance can be severe, leading to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and increased mortality rates for infections that were once easily treatable.

Combating Antibiotic Resistance

To address this global health threat, various strategies are being implemented:

• Improving antibiotic prescribing practices
• Educating the public about proper antibiotic use
• Developing new antibiotics and alternative treatments
• Implementing better infection prevention and control measures
• Reducing antibiotic use in agriculture

Interactions Between Antibiotics and Other Substances

Antibiotics can interact with various substances, potentially affecting their efficacy or causing adverse reactions. Understanding these interactions is crucial for safe and effective treatment.

Which common substances can interact with antibiotics?

• Other medications, including over-the-counter drugs
• Alcohol
• Certain foods and supplements
• Oral contraceptives

For example, some antibiotics can reduce the effectiveness of birth control pills, potentially leading to unintended pregnancies. Others may interact with alcohol, causing severe nausea, vomiting, and other side effects.

Importance of Disclosure to Healthcare Providers

To minimize the risk of harmful interactions, it’s essential to:

• Inform your doctor about all medications and supplements you’re taking
• Disclose any allergies or previous adverse reactions to antibiotics
• Ask about potential food and drink restrictions while on antibiotics
• Follow all instructions provided with your prescription

Emerging Trends in Antibiotic Development and Use

As antibiotic resistance continues to pose challenges, researchers and healthcare professionals are exploring new approaches to combat bacterial infections effectively.

What are some innovative strategies being developed to address antibiotic resistance?

• Bacteriophage therapy: Using viruses that specifically target bacteria
• CRISPR gene editing: Modifying bacterial DNA to make them susceptible to antibiotics
• Antibiotic potentiators: Substances that enhance the effectiveness of existing antibiotics
• Nanotechnology: Developing nanoparticles to deliver antibiotics more effectively
• Precision medicine: Tailoring antibiotic treatments based on individual patient factors and specific bacterial strains

These emerging technologies and approaches hold promise for addressing the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant infections and improving patient outcomes.

The Role of Preventive Medicine

While developing new antibiotics is crucial, there’s also an increased focus on preventing infections in the first place. This includes:

• Improving vaccination programs to prevent bacterial infections
• Enhancing hygiene practices in healthcare settings and the community
• Implementing better surveillance systems to detect and respond to outbreaks quickly
• Promoting responsible antibiotic use in both human and veterinary medicine

Antibiotics in Special Populations

Certain groups of people require special considerations when it comes to antibiotic use. These populations include:

• Pregnant women
• Breastfeeding mothers
• Children
• Elderly patients
• Individuals with chronic health conditions

How does antibiotic use differ in these special populations? Healthcare providers must carefully weigh the benefits and risks of antibiotic treatment, considering factors such as:

• The safety profile of specific antibiotics during pregnancy and breastfeeding
• Age-appropriate dosing for pediatric patients
• Potential interactions with other medications in elderly patients or those with multiple health conditions
• The impact of antibiotics on the developing immune system in young children

Antibiotic Prophylaxis

In some cases, antibiotics may be prescribed preventively, known as antibiotic prophylaxis. This approach is typically used for:

• Patients undergoing certain surgical procedures
• Individuals with compromised immune systems
• People with specific heart conditions at risk of infective endocarditis
• Travelers visiting areas with high risk of certain bacterial infections

While antibiotic prophylaxis can be beneficial in specific situations, it must be used judiciously to avoid contributing to antibiotic resistance.

The Future of Antibiotic Research and Development

As the threat of antibiotic resistance grows, there’s an urgent need for new and innovative approaches to combat bacterial infections. The future of antibiotic research and development is focusing on several key areas:

• Discovery of novel antibiotic compounds
• Development of combination therapies
• Exploration of alternative antimicrobial agents
• Improvement of diagnostic tools for faster, more accurate infection identification
• Integration of artificial intelligence in drug discovery and development processes

What challenges does the antibiotic development pipeline face? Some significant hurdles include:

• High costs and long timelines for drug development
• Regulatory hurdles and stringent approval processes
• Limited financial incentives for pharmaceutical companies
• The rapid emergence of resistance to new antibiotics

Addressing these challenges requires collaboration between governments, academia, and the pharmaceutical industry to create a more sustainable model for antibiotic development and use.

One Health Approach

The One Health approach recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health in addressing antibiotic resistance. This holistic strategy involves:

• Coordinating antibiotic use policies across human and veterinary medicine
• Implementing environmental monitoring for antibiotic residues and resistant bacteria
• Developing integrated surveillance systems to track resistance across different sectors
• Promoting research on the ecological aspects of antibiotic resistance

By adopting a One Health perspective, we can develop more comprehensive and effective strategies to combat antibiotic resistance on a global scale.

Antibiotics – NHS

Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent some types of bacterial infection. They work by killing bacteria or preventing them from spreading. But they do not work for everything.

Many mild bacterial infections get better on their own without using antibiotics.

Antibiotics do not work for viral infections such as colds and flu, and most coughs.

Antibiotics are no longer routinely used to treat:

• chest infections
• ear infections in children
• sore throats

When it comes to antibiotics, take your doctor’s advice on whether you need them or not. Antibiotic resistance is a big problem – taking antibiotics when you do not need them can mean they will not work for you in the future.

When antibiotics are needed

Antibiotics may be used to treat bacterial infections that:

• are unlikely to clear up without antibiotics
• could infect others
• could take too long to clear without treatment
• carry a risk of more serious complications

People at a high risk of infection may also be given antibiotics as a precaution, known as antibiotic prophylaxis.

Read more about when antibiotics are used and why antibiotics are not routinely used to treat infections.

How to take antibiotics

Take antibiotics as directed on the packet or the patient information leaflet that comes with the medicine, or as instructed by your GP or pharmacist.

Antibiotics can come as:

• tablets, capsules or a liquid that you drink – these can be used to treat most types of mild to moderate infections in the body
• creams, lotions, sprays and drops – these are often used to treat skin infections and eye or ear infections
• injections – these can be given as an injection or through a drip directly into the blood or muscle, and are used for more serious infections

Missing a dose of antibiotics

If you forget to take a dose of your antibiotics, check the patient information leaflet that came with your medicine to find out what to do. If you’re not sure, speak to a pharmacist or a GP.

In most cases, you can take the dose you missed as soon as you remember and then continue to take your course of antibiotics as normal.

But if it’s almost time for the next dose, skip the missed dose and continue your regular dosing schedule. Do not take a double dose to make up for a missed one.

Accidentally taking an extra dose

There’s an increased risk of side effects if you take 2 doses closer together than recommended.

Accidentally taking 1 extra dose of your antibiotic is unlikely to cause you any serious harm.

But it will increase your chances of getting side effects, such as pain in your stomach, diarrhoea, and feeling or being sick.

If you accidentally take more than 1 extra dose of your antibiotic, are worried or you get severe side effects, speak to your GP or call NHS 111 as soon as possible.

Side effects of antibiotics

As with any medicine, antibiotics can cause side effects. Most antibiotics do not cause problems if they’re used properly and serious side effects are rare.

The common side effects include:

• being sick
• feeling sick
• bloating and indigestion
• diarrhoea

Some people may have an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially penicillin and another type of antibiotic called cephalosporins.

In very rare cases, this can lead to a serious allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), which is a medical emergency.

Call 999 or go to A&E now if:

• you get a skin rash that may include itchy, red, swollen, blistered or peeling skin
• you’re wheezing
• you get tightness in the chest or throat
• you have trouble breathing or talking
• your mouth, face, lips, tongue or throat start swelling

You could be having a serious allergic reaction and may need immediate treatment in hospital.

Read more about the side effects of antibiotics.

Considerations and interactions

Some antibiotics are not suitable for people with certain medical problems, or women who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

Tell your healthcare professional if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding so they can prescribe the most suitable antibiotic for you.

Only ever take antibiotics prescribed for you – never “borrow” them from a friend or family member.

Some antibiotics do not mix well with other medicines, such as the contraceptive pill and alcohol.

Read the information leaflet that comes with your medicine carefully and discuss any concerns with your pharmacist or GP.

Read more about how antibiotics interact with other medicines.

Types of antibiotics

There are hundreds of different types of antibiotics, but most of them can be classified into 6 groups.

• Penicillins (such as penicillin, amoxicillin, co-amoxiclav, flucloxacillin and phenoxymethylpenicillin) – widely used to treat a variety of infections, including skin infections, chest infections and urinary tract infections
• Cephalosporins (such as cefalexin) – used to treat a wide range of infections, but some are also effective for treating more serious infections, such as sepsis and meningitis
• Aminoglycosides (such as gentamicin and tobramycin) – tend to only be used in hospital to treat very serious illnesses such as sepsis, as they can cause serious side effects, including hearing loss and kidney damage; they’re usually given by injection, but may be given as drops for some ear or eye infections
• Tetracyclines (such as tetracycline, doxycycline and lymecycline) – can be used to treat a wide range of infections, but are commonly used to treat acne and a skin condition called rosacea
• Macrolides (such as azithromycin, erythromycin and clarithromycin) – can be particularly useful for treating lung and chest infections, or as an alternative for people with a penicillin allergy, or to treat penicillin-resistant strains of bacteria
• Fluoroquinolones (such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin) – are broad-spectrum antibiotics that were once used to treat a wide range of infections, especially respiratory and urinary tract infections; these antibiotics are no longer used routinely because of the risk of serious side effects

Other antibiotics include chloramphenicol (used for eye and ear infections), fusidic acid (used for skin and eye infections), and nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim (used for urinary tract infections).

Page last reviewed: 11 November 2022
Next review due: 11 November 2025

Antibiotics – Side effects – NHS

Antibiotics can have side effects such as diarrhoea and feeling sick.

These side effects are usually mild and should pass once you finish your course of treatment.

If you get any additional side effects, contact your GP or the doctor in charge of your care for advice.

Antibiotic allergic reactions

Rarely, some people may have an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially penicillin and cephalosporins.

In most cases, the allergic reaction is mild to moderate and can take the form of:

• a raised, itchy skin rash (urticaria, or hives)
• coughing
• wheezing
• tightness of the throat, which can cause breathing difficulties

These mild to moderate allergic reactions can usually be successfully treated by taking antihistamines.

But if you’re concerned, or your symptoms do not get better with treatment, call your GP for advice. If you cannot contact your GP, call NHS 111.

In rare cases, an antibiotic can cause a severe and potentially life-threatening allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis.

Call 999 or go to A&E now if:

• you have a skin rash that may include itchy, red, swollen, blistered or peeling skin
• you’re wheezing
• you have tightness in your chest or throat
• you have trouble breathing or talking
• your mouth, face, lips, tongue or throat start swelling

You could be having a serious allergic reaction and may need immediate treatment in hospital.

Tetracyclines and sensitivity to light

Tetracyclines can make your skin sensitive to sunlight and artificial sources of light, such as sun lamps and sunbeds.

Avoid prolonged exposure to bright light while taking these medicines.

Fluoroquinolones

Severe aches and pains

In very rare cases, fluoroquinolone antibiotics can cause disabling, long-lasting or permanent side effects affecting the joints, muscles and nervous system.

Stop taking fluoroquinolone treatment straight away and see your GP if you get a serious side effect including:

• tendon, muscle or joint pain – usually in the knee, elbow or shoulder
• tingling, numbness or pins and needles

Heart problems

Fluoroquinolone antibiotics can cause serious side effects in people who are at risk of heart valve problems.

Stop taking fluoroquinolone treatment straight away and see your GP if you get a serious side effect including:

• swollen ankles, feet and legs (oedema)
• new heart palpitations (heartbeats that suddenly become more noticeable)
• sudden shortness of breath

Reporting side effects

The Yellow Card Scheme allows you to report suspected side effects from any type of medicine you’re taking.

It’s run by a medicines safety watchdog called the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA).

Page last reviewed: 11 November 2022
Next review due: 11 November 2025

What are antibiotics? – article on the website Aptechestvo, Nizhny Novgorod

Antibiotics are a group of drugs that are used in the treatment of bacterial infections. Bacteria are living microorganisms that, having penetrated into the human body, begin active life and reproduction. The effect of antibiotic therapy is the direct destruction of the pathogen, as well as slowing down the reproduction of pathogens. In connection with these antibacterial drugs are divided into 2 large groups: bactericidal – destroying the bacterium itself, as well as bacteriostatic, inhibiting their growth. In addition, antibiotics have a narrow and broad spectrum of action. Narrow-spectrum drugs destroy the infection selectively, while broad-spectrum drugs destroy most of the microorganisms, including those that benefit humans. What antibiotics to take for the treatment of various diseases should be decided by the doctor after the diagnosis. Taking such drugs at your own discretion is fraught with complications.

Fluoroquinolones

They suppress the activity of enzymes involved in the formation of bacterial DNA, as a result of which the infection dies. The drugs are available in the form of tablets, injections, ophthalmic drops. Indications for appointment:

This group of drugs:

• Ciprofloxacin;

• Ofloxacin;

• Pefloxacin;

• Norfloxacin.

Aminoglycosides

Broad-spectrum agents that kill most types of Gram-negative aerobic and facultative bacteria. The active substance disrupts the process of protein synthesis, as a result of which the pathogen is destroyed and dies.

Aminoglycosides are poorly absorbed when taken orally, so, as a rule, they are prescribed as intravenous or intramuscular injections. Members of this group:

• Amikacin;

• Gentamicin;

• Kanamycin;

• Neomycin;

• Plazomycin;

• Streptomycin.

As a rule, these drugs are used in combination with other antibiotics to treat such infectious diseases:

Tetracyclines

Bacteriostatic antibiotics that retard the growth of pathogenic microorganisms, but do not completely destroy them. As a result, the reproduction of the infection stops, and it gradually dies.

Tetracyclines have a wide spectrum of activity, with pronounced activity against aerobic gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Tetracyclines are not prescribed for children under 8 years of age, since long-term use causes a number of serious complications.

The drugs of this group can be prescribed in tablet forms and in the form of injections. For the treatment of ophthalmic infections, ointments are produced, the active substance of which is tetracycline.

Medicines:

• doxycycline;

• minocycline;

• Tetracycline;

• Oxytetracycline.

Diseases for which tetracyclines are prescribed:

Macrolides

They suppress vital activity and prevent the reproduction of anaerobic and aerobic gram-positive bacteria. Preparations of this group are used in the treatment of bronchopulmonary infections, tonsillitis, otitis, scarlet fever, intestinal infections. Medicines that are included in this group:

• Erythromycin;

• Azithromycin;

• Clarithromycin;

• Spiramycin.

Penicilli

A group of antibiotics produced by the fungus Penicillium. Penicilli are active against most Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. This group of drugs:

• Amoxicillin;

• Augumetin;

• Amoxiclav;

• Flemoxin Slutab.

Cephalosporins

These are bactericidal beta-beta-lactam antibiotics that interfere with cell protein synthesis. There are 5 generations of cephalosporins. The active substance penetrates well into most body fluids, having a pronounced bactericidal effect. Cephalosporins are used for uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by staphylococcal and streptococcal bacteria. This group of drugs:

• Ceftriaxone;

• Cefodox;

• Cefix;

• Tsepefim.

Bacteria are organisms that do not live long, but in order to restore their population, they multiply rapidly, and, accordingly, quickly mutate, adapting to new living conditions. Microorganisms that survive after taking antibiotics become resistant to them. Their offspring also become immune to a particular drug.

Antibiotic resistance is a common problem of modern man, which causes serious complications. A person who has tried many antibiotics, that is, self-medicated, is at risk for patients with antibiotic resistance. Very often they die before a specialist can pick up a drug that works against a specific pathogen. Therefore, it is important to follow the recommendations of the doctor and take antibacterial agents strictly according to an individual scheme.

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