What are the symptoms of pinworm infection in children. How is pinworm infection diagnosed and treated. Can pinworm infections be prevented. What causes pinworm infections in children. How to get rid of pinworms effectively.

Understanding Pinworm Infections: Causes and Transmission

Pinworm infection, also known as enterobiasis or oxyuriasis, is a common intestinal parasitic infection caused by small, white worms called Enterobius vermicularis. While it can affect people of all ages, it’s particularly prevalent among young children.

These tiny parasites, typically measuring less than half an inch in length, primarily inhabit the large intestine and rectum of infected individuals. The female pinworms emerge from the anus at night to lay their microscopic eggs on the surrounding skin, which leads to the characteristic itching associated with the infection.

How Do Pinworms Spread?

Pinworm infections are highly contagious and can spread rapidly, especially in environments where children are in close contact. The primary modes of transmission include:

• Direct contact: Children may pick up pinworm eggs on their fingers while playing or scratching their bottoms.
• Indirect contact: Eggs can survive on clothing, bedding, toys, and other surfaces for up to three weeks.
• Ingestion: When infected children put their fingers or contaminated objects in their mouths, they can ingest the eggs.
• Inhalation: In rare cases, adults may breathe in eggs when shaking out contaminated bedding.

It’s important to note that pets do not spread human pinworms, although they may carry their own species of intestinal parasites.

Recognizing Pinworm Infection Symptoms in Children

Identifying pinworm infections early can help prevent their spread and minimize discomfort for affected children. While some infected individuals may remain asymptomatic, others may experience a range of telltale signs.

Common Symptoms of Pinworm Infection

• Intense itching around the anus, especially at night
• Restlessness and difficulty sleeping due to discomfort
• Frequent scratching of the anal area
• Visible tiny, white worms in stool or around the anus
• Irritability or changes in behavior due to sleep disturbances

Are all children with pinworms symptomatic? Not necessarily. Some children may harbor pinworms without showing any obvious signs, which can contribute to the silent spread of the infection within families or communities.

Diagnosing Pinworm Infections: The Tape Test and Beyond

Accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective treatment of pinworm infections. Healthcare providers employ various methods to confirm the presence of these parasites.

The Tape Test: A Simple Diagnostic Tool

The tape test is a straightforward and non-invasive method for detecting pinworms. Here’s how it works:

1. Upon waking, before using the bathroom or bathing, press a piece of clear adhesive tape against the skin around the anus.
2. Repeat this process for three consecutive mornings.
3. Submit the collected tape samples to your healthcare provider for microscopic examination.

This test is highly effective because female pinworms typically emerge at night to lay eggs, making them more likely to be captured on the tape in the early morning hours.

Visual Inspection and Other Diagnostic Methods

In some cases, healthcare providers may be able to visually identify adult worms around the anus or in stool samples. Additionally, they may recommend other diagnostic procedures, such as stool analysis or blood tests, to rule out other parasitic infections or underlying conditions.

Effective Treatment Strategies for Pinworm Infections

Once diagnosed, pinworm infections are typically straightforward to treat. Healthcare providers may recommend various approaches depending on the severity of the infection and the age of the affected individual.

Medication Options for Pinworm Eradication

The most common medications prescribed for pinworm infections include:

• Mebendazole: A single chewable tablet, with a second dose taken about three weeks later if necessary.
• Pyrantel pamoate: Administered as a single dose, this medication is often available over-the-counter.
• Albendazole: Another effective antiparasitic medication that may be prescribed in certain cases.

Is a single dose of medication sufficient to eliminate pinworms? In many cases, yes. However, healthcare providers often recommend a follow-up dose or treatment of all household members to prevent reinfection.

Complementary Measures to Support Treatment

In addition to medication, several hygiene and environmental measures can help eliminate pinworms and prevent reinfection:

• Wash bedding, clothing, and towels in hot water to kill eggs.
• Vacuum carpets and upholstered furniture thoroughly.
• Clean and disinfect commonly touched surfaces, including toys and bathroom fixtures.
• Encourage frequent hand washing, especially before meals and after using the bathroom.
• Keep fingernails short and discourage nail-biting and anal scratching.

Preventing Pinworm Infections: Proactive Measures for Families

While pinworm infections are common, especially among children, there are several strategies families can employ to reduce the risk of infection and reinfection.

Personal Hygiene Practices

• Teach children proper hand washing techniques, emphasizing the importance of washing before eating and after using the bathroom.
• Encourage daily bathing or showering, preferably in the morning to wash away any eggs deposited overnight.
• Keep children’s fingernails short and clean to minimize egg accumulation.
• Discourage behaviors like thumb-sucking and nail-biting that can facilitate egg ingestion.

Environmental Control Measures

Maintaining a clean home environment is crucial in preventing the spread of pinworms:

• Regularly launder bedding, pajamas, and underwear in hot water.
• Vacuum carpets and upholstered furniture frequently, disposing of vacuum bags in sealed plastic.
• Clean and disinfect shared spaces, especially bathrooms and play areas.
• Consider using protective mattress covers to prevent egg contamination.

Can pinworm eggs survive in all environments? While pinworm eggs are resilient, they cannot survive extreme temperatures or prolonged exposure to sunlight. Regular cleaning and proper hygiene practices can significantly reduce their presence in the home.

Pinworms in Schools and Daycare Centers: Managing Outbreaks

Given the highly contagious nature of pinworm infections, schools and daycare centers can be hotspots for transmission. Understanding how to manage and prevent outbreaks in these settings is crucial for protecting children’s health and minimizing disruptions to education.

Notification and Communication

Should parents inform schools if their child has pinworms? Yes, it’s important to notify the school or daycare center if a child is diagnosed with a pinworm infection. This allows the institution to take appropriate measures to prevent the spread of the infection to other children.

• Schools should have clear policies on when to notify parents of potential exposure.
• Confidentiality should be maintained while ensuring necessary information is communicated.
• Educational materials about pinworm prevention can be distributed to families.

Implementing Control Measures

Schools and daycare centers can take several steps to minimize the risk of pinworm transmission:

• Encourage and supervise regular hand washing among children and staff.
• Implement rigorous cleaning protocols for toys, surfaces, and shared spaces.
• Ensure proper sanitation in bathrooms and diaper-changing areas.
• Consider temporary removal of soft toys or items that are difficult to clean thoroughly.
• Educate staff on recognizing potential symptoms and maintaining hygiene standards.

Addressing Common Concerns and Misconceptions About Pinworms

Despite the prevalence of pinworm infections, many misconceptions persist, leading to unnecessary anxiety or ineffective prevention strategies. Addressing these concerns can help families better understand and manage pinworm infections.

Debunking Pinworm Myths

Are pinworms a sign of poor hygiene? Not necessarily. While good hygiene practices can help prevent pinworm infections, even children in very clean environments can contract pinworms due to their highly contagious nature.

Other common misconceptions include:

• Myth: Pinworms can be transmitted through toilet seats.
  Reality: Pinworm eggs cannot live long on toilet seats and are unlikely to cause infection this way.
• Myth: Only children get pinworms.
  Reality: While more common in children, adults can also become infected, especially those living with infected children.
• Myth: Pinworm infections are dangerous.
  Reality: While uncomfortable, pinworm infections are generally harmless and easily treated.

Addressing Emotional and Social Impacts

Pinworm infections can cause embarrassment or social stigma, particularly for school-aged children. It’s important to address these emotional aspects:

• Reassure children that pinworm infections are common and not a reflection of their cleanliness or worth.
• Educate family members and caregivers to prevent shaming or blaming.
• Encourage open communication about symptoms to ensure prompt treatment.

How can parents discuss pinworm infections with their children without causing alarm? Approach the topic matter-of-factly, focusing on simple hygiene practices and the ease of treatment. Avoid using language that might increase anxiety or shame.

Long-Term Management and Preventing Reinfection

Successfully treating a pinworm infection is only part of the battle. Preventing reinfection and managing long-term risks requires ongoing vigilance and consistent hygiene practices.

Strategies for Ongoing Prevention

• Maintain rigorous hand washing habits, especially before meals and after using the bathroom.
• Continue regular cleaning of bedding, clothing, and shared surfaces.
• Consider periodic “family check-ups” using the tape test, especially if symptoms recur.
• Be aware of potential exposure in group settings and reinforce prevention strategies as needed.

When to Seek Further Medical Attention

While most pinworm infections resolve with treatment, there are instances where additional medical consultation may be necessary:

• Persistent symptoms despite completing prescribed treatment
• Frequent reinfections despite following prevention guidelines
• Development of secondary infections or complications
• Presence of other gastrointestinal symptoms that may indicate different parasitic infections

How often should families perform preventive measures after treatment? While there’s no set schedule, maintaining good hygiene practices and being vigilant about symptoms can help prevent reinfection. Some families may choose to implement more thorough cleaning routines or periodic checks during high-risk periods, such as the start of the school year.

By understanding the nature of pinworm infections, implementing effective prevention strategies, and addressing infections promptly when they occur, families can minimize the impact of these common parasites on their children’s health and well-being. Remember, while pinworm infections can be frustrating, they are manageable with the right approach and consistent care.

What Are Pinworms? – Treatment & Symptoms

What is pinworm infection?

Pinworm infection is an intestinal infection caused by small, white worms. Anyone can get it, but it’s most common in young children. It’s easily treated.

Symptoms of pinworm infection

If your child is infected with pinworms, they may frequently scratch their bottom. Your child may also move around a lot in bed at night or not be able to sleep. That’s because your child it itchy. The itching is caused by the female pinworm that comes out of the rectum to lay eggs around the anus (the opening to the rectum). The eggs stay in the upper part of the intestine until they hatch. After they hatch, the worms move down the length of the intestine, and then out the anus where they lay more eggs.

You also may be able to see the tiny, white worms (shorter than 1/2 inch in length) on your child’s bottom at night. Or the worms may show up in your child’s stools.

What causes pinworm infection?

Pinworms are contagious and easily spread, usually from child to child. Pinworm eggs can be picked up on children’s fingers when they’re playing. When children who are infected scratch their itchy bottoms, the tiny eggs can get under their fingernails. Eggs can stay on your child’s skin for several hours. They can survive for up to 3 weeks on clothes, bedding, and toys. If the eggs are on your child’s hands or toys and they put their fingers or toys in their mouth, the tiny eggs can enter their bodies. Children who don’t wash their hands thoroughly before eating and children who suck their thumbs are at an increased risk.

Although pinworm infection is more common in school-aged children, anyone can get it. As children who are infected move around the house, the eggs may be spread, and other family members can become infected. Sometimes adults breathe in the eggs when the bed covers are shaken. However, this isn’t very common.

Pets don’t spread pinworms, although they may carry their own kinds of worms.

How is pinworm infection diagnosed?

Because pinworms usually crawl out of the anus while a child sleeps, the tape test is an easy way to find pinworms. It’s best to do this right when your child wakes up and before they use the bathroom or take a bath. To do the tape test, pat a piece of clear tape on the skin around the anus. Do this for three mornings in a row and save the tape from each morning. Then take the tape to your doctor, who can use a microscope to check for pinworms or eggs. It’s also possible to see the adult worms around the anus during the tape test.

Can pinworm infection be prevented or avoided?

There are ways to prevent or avoid getting pinworm infection—and reinfections. Follow these tips:

• Make sure your child washes their hands before a meal and after using the restroom.
• Keep your child’s fingernails trimmed.
• Discourage your child from nail-biting and scratching their anal area.
• Be sure your child changes into a clean pair of underwear each day.
• Have your child bathe in the morning to reduce egg contamination. If possible, have your child take a shower instead of a bath.
• Change your child’s night clothes, underwear, and bedding after treatment.

Pinworm infection treatment

Most pinworm infections are mild and easily treated. Your doctor may prescribe a single chewable tablet of a medicine called mebendazole. A second tablet is taken about 3 weeks later if the infection isn’t cured. Or your doctor may recommend another kind of medicine called pyrantel, which is taken as a single dose.

Even if only one child in your family has pinworms, it’s often important that everyone in the household be treated with the pinworm medicine at the same time.

Living with pinworm infection

Pinworm infection is very contagious. If you don’t take precautions, it’s easy to become reinfected. If anyone in your home has pinworms, take these steps to get rid of the pinworm eggs. Doing so will minimize your chances of reinfection.

• Wash all the sheets, blankets, towels, and clothing in the house in hot water.
• Carefully clean everyone’s fingernails (which may hold the worm eggs) and cut them short.
• Scrub toys, countertops, floors, and other surfaces the infected child has touched.
• Vacuum carpets.

Questions to ask your doctor

• How long will the treatment take?
• When should I call my doctor?
• Should I let my child’s school or daycare know they have pinworms?
• Should I get rid of my child’s bedding or underwear?
• Will hand sanitizers work against pinworms?
• What steps can I take to make sure no one else in my house gets pinworms?
• Should everyone in my house be treated, even if they don’t have any symptoms?

Resources

Centers for Disease Control & Prevention: Pinworm Infection

Pinworm in kids: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

Pinworms involve infection by a parasitic worm that may live in the large intestine of a human. A child may contract the infection after unknowingly transferring the worms into their body from a contaminated object or through their fingers.

In the United States, school-aged children and preschoolers have the highest rates of pinworm infections.

A pinworm is a small, thin, white roundworm called Enterobius vermicularis that sometimes lives in the human colon and rectum, also known as the large intestine.

Small children are more likely to contract the infection because they tend not to follow common hygiene practices. Children are often in close contact with each other, making transmission more likely.

The article below offers more information on pinworm in kids, including symptoms, treatment, and prevention.

Pinworms travel from the intestinal tract, laying their eggs on the skin near the anus.

Pinworm infections spread via the fecal-oral route — by the transfer of infective pinworm eggs from the anus to someone’s mouth, either directly by hand or indirectly through contaminated clothing, bedding, food, or other objects.

Since young children often put things in their mouths, such as toys and even their fingers, the infection easily spreads in daycare centers and schools.

In some cases, children or other household members unknowingly transfer worms from bedding, clothes, and other objects. This spreads the worms throughout the home and can pass the infection to other family members.

A few hours after a person deposits the eggs on their skin, the infection and symptoms may start. Pinworms may survive about 2–3 weeks on clothing, bedding, or other objects.

Symptoms can vary from mild to severe. After a person swallows the pinworms, the female worm travels out of the intestine to the anal area and lays the eggs. Symptoms usually start after this.

The symptoms of a pinworm infection may include the following:

• itching around the anal area
• trouble sleeping due to itching
• irritability
• vaginal itching
• mild nausea

Although anyone can develop a pinworm infection, it is more likely in children.

Certain risk factors may also increase a person’s risk of developing the infection, such as:

• attending a child care center
• sharing a household with a person who has the infection
• not practicing frequent handwashing
• living in crowded settings, such as institutions and dormitories
• frequent thumb sucking

A doctor diagnoses pinworms based on identifying the worms and the presence of symptoms, such as itching in the anal area.

The worms might be visible to the naked eye, on underclothing or sheets, but the eggs are too small to see without a microscope.

A tape test helps identity the eggs. Parents or caregivers should perform the test on the child first thing in the morning before the child uses the toilet or washes. Washing or using the toilet may remove the eggs. To perform the test, use a piece of cellophane tape and place it firmly on the skin around the anus with the adhesive side down. The eggs will stick to the tape. A microscope can then identify a pinworm infection.

People should do the test on three consecutive mornings to increase the likelihood of finding pinworm eggs.

Treatment helps get rid of the worms and ease symptoms. A combination of the treatments below works best to prevent the infection from coming back.

Treatment for pinworms in children includes the following:

Medications

Treatment involves two doses of over-the-counter or prescription medications spaced 2 weeks apart.

Common medications used to treat pinworms include:

• albendazole (Albenza)
• mebendazole (Vermox)
• pyrantel pamoate (Reese’s Pinworm Medicine)

Since the infection spreads easily among people living together, treatment should also include all caregivers of the child and people living in the household.

Hygiene tips

In addition to medication, practicing proper hygiene helps prevent reinfection. Caregivers can use the following hygiene tips:

• washing hands frequently
• keeping fingernails short
• working with the child to avoid thumb sucking and biting the nails
• changing underwear daily
• washing clothes and bedding in hot water

Although some people may turn to home remedies to get rid of pinworms, little research supports their effectiveness. Individuals who suspect a child has a pinworm infection should seek help from a healthcare professional before trying home remedies.

Learn more about treatment options for pinworms here.

Typically, pinworm infections are bothersome but do not become serious. However, complications may develop in some instances. Possible complications include:

• Skin infections: A secondary skin infection may develop from scratching.
• Urinary tract infections: Females with a serious pinworm infection can develop an infection in their urinary tract. The worms may travel to the bladder leading to an infection.
• Vaginitis: The worms may also travel from the anal area to the vagina, causing an infection.
• Weight loss: In cases of a severe infection, the worms may leech off of the child’s vital nutrients, leading to weight loss.

It is helpful to contact a doctor if any of the above complications develop or if infections reoccur.

Parents and caregivers can take several steps to prevent pinworm infections in children, such as:

• teaching children good handwashing
• washing bed linen and underclothes often
• thoroughly washing toilet seats
• wiping toys
• encouraging the child to shower daily
• teaching children to avoid putting their fingers in their mouth
• keeping fingernails short
• making sure children wash their hands before eating
• thoroughly wiping the anal area with every diaper change
• avoiding scratching skin in the anal area

Pinworms in children involve infection with a small, white worm that lives in the intestines. The worms travel through the intestines and lay eggs outside the skin around the anus.

Symptoms include intense itching. Treatment often helps and includes a combination of medications and good hygiene to prevent reinfection.

Enterobiasis (pinworms) in children – symptoms and treatment, clinical guidelines

Enterobiasis is a helminthiasis that develops when the colon and rectum of a person are infected with pinworms. It is diagnosed most often in children, although adults can also be infected. Diagnosis is carried out by microscopic detection of eggs. Pinworms in children cause characteristic symptoms. Treatment includes hygiene and deworming. The clinic “RebenOK” carries out diagnostics taking into account the symptoms and treatment of enterobiasis at the best prices in Moscow.

After ascariasis, enterobiasis is in 2nd place. Approximately 400 million people suffer from this disease. Most often, children become infected due to insufficient personal hygiene, as well as people working in children’s groups (boarding schools, schools, preschool institutions).

The pinworm is highly contagious. The eggs of the parasite Enterobius vermicularis are transmitted from person to person. They survive outside the host organism up to 2-3 weeks. There are two mechanisms of infection with enterobiasis – fecal-oral and aerosol (by air). In the first case, we are talking about the contact-household, water and alimentary (food) form of infection. The transmission factor is dirty hands, which contain pinworm eggs. Infection through the water of pools, rivers and lakes is unlikely.

The development of pinworms in the human body is a cycle:

1. As soon as the eggs penetrate, they reach the small intestine where the larvae form.
2. They pass into the large intestine, where they parasitize at the stage of maturation.
3. After 1-2 months, adult females lay eggs in the rectal area.

Because of the unbearable itching, children comb the anal area. In this case, the eggs of the parasite fall under the overgrown edge of the nail plate. In the absence of proper hygiene, they penetrate the oral cavity and the life cycle of the nematode resumes.

Worms of the nematode class have a rounded pointed body. The length of the female reaches 1.3 cm, the male – 0.5 cm. Males die after fertilization. The life expectancy of a female is 1 month, during which they produce offspring (lay eggs). After fertilization, the size of the body increases, the possibility of fixation is lost. Reaching the rectum, they crawl out, laying eggs in the perinatal folds.

The uterus of a female can contain up to 17,000 eggs. The larvae develop under certain conditions: at a temperature of 22-39degrees and exposure to oxygen. It takes 5 hours for the larva to reach the invasive stage. Pinworm eggs have high levels of protection – they survive and remain invasive for up to 1 month, and sometimes longer. They are not sensitive to many disinfectants, but quickly die under the influence of a soapy solution, when boiled and ironed.

Nematode eggs can survive on food and drinks, dishes, countertops, doorknobs, bedding, clothes, etc. It is impossible to get pinworms from pets, because they do not participate in the life cycle of the parasite. Enterobius vermicularis parasites are tiny but can be seen with the naked eye.

Pinworms cause severe itching in the perinatal folds around the anus. In women and girls, hookworms can also cause vaginal itching and a characteristic discharge.

The condition worsens at night, which is associated with the activity of the parasite at night. This leads to insomnia, irritability and nervousness. Adults and children with enterobiasis can spend a lot of time in the shower, as water helps to cope with the symptoms of the disease, improving the condition.

The most common symptoms of pinworms in children are:

• rash and itching around the anus;
• irritable bowel and increased gas;
• accelerated (3-4 times a day) decorated chair;
• excessive irritability, moodiness, tearfulness;
• headaches, memory impairment.

Nighttime urinary incontinence is another possible symptom of enterobiasis in children, which is prevalent predominantly in preschoolers. This is because pinworms irritate the urethra, the thin tube through which urine leaves the bladder and exits the body.

Children and adults who develop enterobiasis scratch the itchy area. This leads to swelling, redness and bleeding. Bacteria can enter the wound, leading to a rectal abscess.

By exerting a mechanical effect on the walls of the intestinal mucosa, nematodes provoke dysmotility and secretion, causing inflammation of the digestive organs. Against this background, enteritis may develop.

Pinworms sometimes cause digestive symptoms

• abdominal pain;
• nausea;
• loss of appetite.

This condition is accompanied by weight loss and characteristic weakness. As parasites, pinworms suck out essential nutrients from the body, leading to the development of deficient conditions. Sometimes pinworms spread to the female reproductive tract, leading to complications (urinary tract infections, vaginitis).

Against the background of enterobiasis, a decrease in the protective functions of the body is observed. For this reason, the child is more likely to suffer from acute respiratory diseases. Exacerbation of chronic diseases is observed. A slight increase in body temperature is not excluded.

Enterobiasis is usually diagnosed based on symptoms. However, there are other causes of pruritus ani, including skin irritation, diarrhea, and infections other than parasitic infestation. The diagnosis can be confirmed by identifying eggs or worms in specimens examined under a microscope. Sometimes parents themselves manage to detect pinworms on the folds of the skin near the anus or in the feces.

To confirm the diagnosis, clinical symptoms and the general condition of the patient are taken into account.

Screening is carried out in two ways: from the perianal folds (imprint with adhesive tape), scraping for enterobiasis in children (using a cotton swab). To obtain reliable information, the study is repeated 2-3 times at a certain interval. When conducting a coprogram, nematode eggs can be detected in rare cases.

Before treating pinworms in children, the diagnosis should be confirmed. Enterobiasis can be cured without medication, by carefully carrying out hygiene procedures to prevent re-infection. This method is applicable to children who have contraindications to anthelmintics. Recovery occurs over a longer period than with drug treatment.

Key recommendations for non-pharmacological treatment:

1. The child should wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water after going to the toilet and walking.
2. Care must be taken to ensure that the child does not lick his hands.
3. Nails must be cut short.
4. Bed linen should be changed daily, boiled and ironed.
5. Wash your child with soap in the morning and evening.

The use of tablets for the treatment of enterobiasis in children is a more reliable way that ensures a quick recovery. Anthelmintic drugs cause the death of the parasite.

14 days after deworming, you need to re-diagnose. If the test result for enterobiasis in children is negative, then the child is considered recovered. If the clinical picture of helminthic invasion persists, then the drugs are repeated in the same dosage.

Doctor’s expert opinion

Treatment of pinworms in children is carried out under the supervision of a pediatrician. An incorrectly selected drug can lead to the introduction of pinworms into the mucous and submucosal layers of the intestine. Pinworms can cause the development of a purulent inflammatory process. This leads to indigestion, impaired motility of the gastrointestinal tract.

Ignatieva Olga Nikolaevna Pediatrician, candidate of medical sciences

Preventive measures are aimed at instilling standard hygiene habits in children.

Clinical recommendations for enterobiasis in children:

• be sure to cut your nails as they grow back;
• wash hands before sitting down to eat, after going to the toilet and after returning home from the street.

Children who attend educational institutions are examined for enterobiasis for prevention purposes. This approach allows to exclude mass infection.

Enterobiosis is a common helminthiasis that contributes to the development of a number of somatic diseases. Pinworms lead to an exacerbation of chronic diseases, and this fact has been scientifically proven.

Medicines and personal hygiene are the main therapeutic measures for enterobiasis. If contact with the source of infection is maintained, re-infection is not ruled out.

If you have symptoms of helminthic invasion, contact the RebenOK clinic. An experienced pediatrician will diagnose and tell you how to treat enterobiasis in children by prescribing effective drugs for pinworms.

Sources:

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2. Rustamova G., Mukhammadieva L. Enterobiosis in children: modern diagnostic problems // International scientific review. 2020. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/enterobioz-u-detey-sovremennye-problemy-diagnostiki (date of access: 06/10/2022)
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