17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions – Anatomy & Physiology

Skip to content

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the hormones produced by organs with secondary endocrine functions, and their effects

In your study of anatomy and physiology, you have already encountered a few of the many organs of the body that have secondary endocrine functions. Here, you will learn about the hormone-producing activities of the heart, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, skeleton, adipose tissue, skin, and thymus.

When the body experiences an increase in blood volume or pressure, the cells of the heart’s atrial wall stretch. In response, specialized cells in the wall of the atria produce and secrete the peptide hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP signals the kidneys to reduce sodium reabsorption, thereby decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed from the urine filtrate and reducing blood volume. Other actions of ANP include inhibition of vasodilation and the inhibition of renin secretion and of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Therefore, ANP aids in decreasing blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium levels.

The endocrine cells of the GI tract (also referred to as enteroendocrine cells) are located in the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine. Some of these hormones are secreted in response to eating a meal and aid in digestion. An example of a hormone secreted by the stomach cells is gastrin, a peptide hormone secreted in response to stomach distention that stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid. Secretin is a peptide hormone secreted by the small intestine as acidic chyme (partially digested food and fluid) moves from the stomach. It stimulates the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas, which buffers the acidic chyme, and inhibits the further secretion of hydrochloric acid by the stomach. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is another peptide hormone released from the small intestine. It promotes the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile from the gallbladder, both of which facilitate digestion. Other hormones produced by the intestinal cells aid in glucose metabolism, such as by stimulating the pancreatic beta cells to secrete insulin, reducing glucagon secretion from the alpha cells, or enhancing cellular sensitivity to insulin.

The kidneys participate in several complex endocrine pathways and produce certain hormones. A decline in blood flow to the kidneys stimulates them to release the enzyme renin, triggering the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS) system, and stimulating the reabsorption of sodium and water. The reabsorption increases blood flow and blood pressure. The kidneys also play a role in regulating blood calcium levels through the production of calcitriol from vitamin D₃, which is released in response to the secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). In addition, the kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low oxygen levels. EPO stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone marrow, thereby increasing oxygen delivery to tissues. You may have heard of EPO as a performance-enhancing drug (in a synthetic form).

Although bone has long been recognized as a target for hormones, only recently have researchers recognized that the skeleton itself produces at least two hormones. Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is produced by bone cells in response to increased blood levels of vitamin D₃ or phosphate. It triggers the kidneys to inhibit the formation of calcitriol from vitamin D₃ and to increase phosphorus excretion. Osteocalcin, produced by osteoblasts, stimulates the pancreatic beta cells to increase insulin production. It also acts on peripheral tissues to increase their sensitivity to insulin and their utilization of glucose.

Adipose tissue produces and secretes several hormones involved in lipid metabolism and storage. One important example is leptin, a protein manufactured by adipose cells that circulates in amounts directly proportional to levels of body fat. Leptin is released in response to food consumption and acts by binding to brain neurons involved in energy intake and expenditure. Binding of leptin produces a feeling of satiety after a meal, thereby reducing appetite. It also appears that the binding of leptin to brain receptors triggers the sympathetic nervous system to regulate bone metabolism. Adiponectin—another hormone synthesized by adipose cells—appears to reduce cellular insulin resistance and to protect blood vessels from inflammation and atherosclerosis. Its levels are lower in people who are obese, and rise following weight loss.

The skin functions as an endocrine organ in the production of the inactive form of vitamin D₃, cholecalciferol. When cholesterol present in the epidermis is exposed to ultraviolet radiation, it is converted to cholecalciferol, which then enters the blood. In the liver, cholecalciferol is converted to an intermediate that travels to the kidneys and is further converted to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D₃. Calcitriol is important in a variety of physiological processes, including intestinal calcium absorption and immune system function. In some studies, low levels of calcitriol have been associated with increased risks of cancer, severe asthma, and multiple sclerosis. Calcitriol deficiency in children causes rickets, and in adults, osteomalacia—both of which are characterized by bone deterioration.

The thymus is an organ of the immune system that is larger and more active during infancy and early childhood, and begins to atrophy as we age. Its endocrine function is the production of a group of hormones called thymosins that contribute to the development and differentiation of T lymphocytes, which are immune cells. Although the role of thymosins is not yet well understood, it is clear that they contribute to the immune response. Thymosins have been found in tissues other than the thymus and have a wide variety of functions, so the thymosins cannot be strictly categorized as thymic hormones.

The liver is responsible for secreting at least four important hormones or hormone precursors: insulin-like growth factor (somatomedin), angiotensinogen, thrombopoetin, and hepcidin. Insulin-like growth factor-1 is the immediate stimulus for growth in the body, especially of the bones. Angiotensinogen is the precursor to angiotensin, mentioned earlier, which increases blood pressure. Thrombopoetin stimulates the production of the blood’s platelets. Hepcidins block the release of iron from cells in the body, helping to regulate iron homeostasis in our body fluids.

The major hormones discussed above are summarized in Table 17.8.

Chapter Review

Some organs have a secondary endocrine function. For example, the walls of the atria of the heart produce the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), the gastrointestinal tract produces the hormones gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which aid in digestion, and the kidneys produce erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the formation of red blood cells. Even bone, adipose tissue, and the skin have secondary endocrine functions.

Glossary

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

peptide hormone produced by the walls of the atria in response to high blood pressure, blood volume, or blood sodium that reduces the reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidneys and promotes vasodilation

erythropoietin (EPO)

protein hormone secreted in response to low oxygen levels that triggers the bone marrow to produce red blood cells

leptin

protein hormone secreted by adipose tissues in response to food consumption that promotes satiety

thymosins

hormones produced and secreted by the thymus that play an important role in the development and differentiation of T cells

thymus

organ that is involved in the development and maturation of T-cells and is particularly active during infancy and childhood

This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, licensed under CC BY. This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.

Images, from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, are licensed under CC BY except where otherwise noted.

Access the original for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction.

License

Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, OSU OERU, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Share on Twitter

Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• State the main digestive roles of the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
• Identify three main features of liver histology that are critical to its function
• Discuss the composition and function of bile
• Identify the major types of enzymes and buffers present in pancreatic juice

Chemical digestion in the small intestine relies on the activities of three accessory digestive organs: the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The digestive role of the liver is to produce bile and export it to the duodenum. The gallbladder primarily stores, concentrates, and releases bile. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, and delivers it to the duodenum.

Figure 1. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are considered accessory digestive organs, but their roles in the digestive system are vital.

The Liver

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about three pounds in an adult. It is also one of the most important organs. In addition to being an accessory digestive organ, it plays a number of roles in metabolism and regulation. The liver lies inferior to the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and receives protection from the surrounding ribs.

The liver is divided into two primary lobes: a large right lobe and a much smaller left lobe. In the right lobe, some anatomists also identify an inferior quadrate lobe and a posterior caudate lobe, which are defined by internal features. The liver is connected to the abdominal wall and diaphragm by five peritoneal folds referred to as ligaments. These are the falciform ligament, the coronary ligament, two lateral ligaments, and the ligamentum teres hepatis. The falciform ligament and ligamentum teres hepatis are actually remnants of the umbilical vein, and separate the right and left lobes anteriorly. The lesser omentum tethers the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach.

The porta hepatis (“gate to the liver”) is where the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein enter the liver. These two vessels, along with the common hepatic duct, run behind the lateral border of the lesser omentum on the way to their destinations. As shown in, the hepatic artery delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver. The hepatic portal vein delivers partially deoxygenated blood containing nutrients absorbed from the small intestine and actually supplies more oxygen to the liver than do the much smaller hepatic arteries. In addition to nutrients, drugs and toxins are also absorbed. After processing the bloodborne nutrients and toxins, the liver releases nutrients needed by other cells back into the blood, which drains into the central vein and then through the hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava. With this hepatic portal circulation, all blood from the alimentary canal passes through the liver. This largely explains why the liver is the most common site for the metastasis of cancers that originate in the alimentary canal.

Figure 2. The liver receives oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery and nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from the hepatic portal vein.

Histology

The liver has three main components: hepatocytes, bile canaliculi, and hepatic sinusoids. A hepatocyte is the liver’s main cell type, accounting for around 80 percent of the liver’s volume. These cells play a role in a wide variety of secretory, metabolic, and endocrine functions. Plates of hepatocytes called hepatic laminae radiate outward from the portal vein in each hepatic lobule.

Between adjacent hepatocytes, grooves in the cell membranes provide room for each bile canaliculus (plural = canaliculi). These small ducts accumulate the bile produced by hepatocytes. From here, bile flows first into bile ductules and then into bile ducts. The bile ducts unite to form the larger right and left hepatic ducts, which themselves merge and exit the liver as the common hepatic duct. This duct then joins with the cystic duct from the gallbladder, forming the common bile duct through which bile flows into the small intestine.

A hepatic sinusoid is an open, porous blood space formed by fenestrated capillaries from nutrient-rich hepatic portal veins and oxygen-rich hepatic arteries. Hepatocytes are tightly packed around the fenestrated endothelium of these spaces, giving them easy access to the blood. From their central position, hepatocytes process the nutrients, toxins, and waste materials carried by the blood. Materials such as bilirubin are processed and excreted into the bile canaliculi. Other materials including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates are processed and secreted into the sinusoids or just stored in the cells until called upon. The hepatic sinusoids combine and send blood to a central vein. Blood then flows through a hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava. This means that blood and bile flow in opposite directions. The hepatic sinusoids also contain star-shaped reticuloendothelial cells (Kupffer cells), phagocytes that remove dead red and white blood cells, bacteria, and other foreign material that enter the sinusoids. The portal triad is a distinctive arrangement around the perimeter of hepatic lobules, consisting of three basic structures: a bile duct, a hepatic artery branch, and a hepatic portal vein branch.

Bile

Recall that lipids are hydrophobic, that is, they do not dissolve in water. Thus, before they can be digested in the watery environment of the small intestine, large lipid globules must be broken down into smaller lipid globules, a process called emulsification. Bile is a mixture secreted by the liver to accomplish the emulsification of lipids in the small intestine.

Hepatocytes secrete about one liter of bile each day. A yellow-brown or yellow-green alkaline solution (pH 7.6 to 8.6), bile is a mixture of water, bile salts, bile pigments, phospholipids (such as lecithin), electrolytes, cholesterol, and triglycerides. The components most critical to emulsification are bile salts and phospholipids, which have a nonpolar (hydrophobic) region as well as a polar (hydrophilic) region. The hydrophobic region interacts with the large lipid molecules, whereas the hydrophilic region interacts with the watery chyme in the intestine. This results in the large lipid globules being pulled apart into many tiny lipid fragments of about 1 µm in diameter. This change dramatically increases the surface area available for lipid-digesting enzyme activity. This is the same way dish soap works on fats mixed with water.

Bile salts act as emulsifying agents, so they are also important for the absorption of digested lipids. While most constituents of bile are eliminated in feces, bile salts are reclaimed by the enterohepatic circulation. Once bile salts reach the ileum, they are absorbed and returned to the liver in the hepatic portal blood. The hepatocytes then excrete the bile salts into newly formed bile. Thus, this precious resource is recycled.

Bilirubin, the main bile pigment, is a waste product produced when the spleen removes old or damaged red blood cells from the circulation. These breakdown products, including proteins, iron, and toxic bilirubin, are transported to the liver via the splenic vein of the hepatic portal system. In the liver, proteins and iron are recycled, whereas bilirubin is excreted in the bile. It accounts for the green color of bile. Bilirubin is eventually transformed by intestinal bacteria into stercobilin, a brown pigment that gives your stool its characteristic color! In some disease states, bile does not enter the intestine, resulting in white (‘acholic’) stool with a high fat content, since virtually no fats are broken down or absorbed.

Hepatocytes work non-stop, but bile production increases when fatty chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates the secretion of the gut hormone secretin. Between meals, bile is produced but conserved. The valve-like hepatopancreatic ampulla closes, allowing bile to divert to the gallbladder, where it is concentrated and stored until the next meal.

Watch this video to see the structure of the liver and how this structure supports the functions of the liver, including the processing of nutrients, toxins, and wastes. At rest, about 1500 mL of blood per minute flow through the liver. What percentage of this blood flow comes from the hepatic portal system?

The Pancreas

The soft, oblong, glandular pancreas lies transversely in the retroperitoneum behind the stomach. Its head is nestled into the “c-shaped” curvature of the duodenum with the body extending to the left about 15.2 cm (6 in) and ending as a tapering tail in the hilum of the spleen. It is a curious mix of exocrine (secreting digestive enzymes) and endocrine (releasing hormones into the blood) functions.

Figure 3. The pancreas has a head, a body, and a tail. It delivers pancreatic juice to the duodenum through the pancreatic duct.

The exocrine part of the pancreas arises as little grape-like cell clusters, each called an acinus (plural = acini), located at the terminal ends of pancreatic ducts. These acinar cells secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice into tiny merging ducts that form two dominant ducts. The larger duct fuses with the common bile duct (carrying bile from the liver and gallbladder) just before entering the duodenum via a common opening (the hepatopancreatic ampulla). The smooth muscle sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla controls the release of pancreatic juice and bile into the small intestine. The second and smaller pancreatic duct, the accessory duct (duct of Santorini), runs from the pancreas directly into the duodenum, approximately 1 inch above the hepatopancreatic ampulla. When present, it is a persistent remnant of pancreatic development.

Scattered through the sea of exocrine acini are small islands of endocrine cells, the islets of Langerhans. These vital cells produce the hormones pancreatic polypeptide, insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin.

Pancreatic Juice

The pancreas produces over a liter of pancreatic juice each day. Unlike bile, it is clear and composed mostly of water along with some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several digestive enzymes. Sodium bicarbonate is responsible for the slight alkalinity of pancreatic juice (pH 7.1 to 8.2), which serves to buffer the acidic gastric juice in chyme, inactivate pepsin from the stomach, and create an optimal environment for the activity of pH-sensitive digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Pancreatic enzymes are active in the digestion of sugars, proteins, and fats.

The pancreas produces protein-digesting enzymes in their inactive forms. These enzymes are activated in the duodenum. If produced in an active form, they would digest the pancreas (which is exactly what occurs in the disease, pancreatitis). The intestinal brush border enzyme enteropeptidase stimulates the activation of trypsin from trypsinogen of the pancreas, which in turn changes the pancreatic enzymes procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen into their active forms, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin.

The enzymes that digest starch (amylase), fat (lipase), and nucleic acids (nuclease) are secreted in their active forms, since they do not attack the pancreas as do the protein-digesting enzymes.

Pancreatic Secretion

Regulation of pancreatic secretion is the job of hormones and the parasympathetic nervous system. The entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin, which in turn causes the duct cells to release bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice. The presence of proteins and fats in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of CCK, which then stimulates the acini to secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice and enhances the activity of secretin. Parasympathetic regulation occurs mainly during the cephalic and gastric phases of gastric secretion, when vagal stimulation prompts the secretion of pancreatic juice.

Usually, the pancreas secretes just enough bicarbonate to counterbalance the amount of HCl produced in the stomach. Hydrogen ions enter the blood when bicarbonate is secreted by the pancreas. Thus, the acidic blood draining from the pancreas neutralizes the alkaline blood draining from the stomach, maintaining the pH of the venous blood that flows to the liver.

The Gallbladder

Figure 4. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and releases it into the two-way cystic duct when it is needed by the small intestine.

The gallbladder is 8–10 cm (~3–4 in) long and is nested in a shallow area on the posterior aspect of the right lobe of the liver. This muscular sac stores, concentrates, and, when stimulated, propels the bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct. It is divided into three regions. The fundus is the widest portion and tapers medially into the body, which in turn narrows to become the neck. The neck angles slightly superiorly as it approaches the hepatic duct. The cystic duct is 1–2 cm (less than 1 in) long and turns inferiorly as it bridges the neck and hepatic duct.

The simple columnar epithelium of the gallbladder mucosa is organized in rugae, similar to those of the stomach. There is no submucosa in the gallbladder wall. The wall’s middle, muscular coat is made of smooth muscle fibers. When these fibers contract, the gallbladder’s contents are ejected through the cystic duct and into the bile duct. Visceral peritoneum reflected from the liver capsule holds the gallbladder against the liver and forms the outer coat of the gallbladder. The gallbladder’s mucosa absorbs water and ions from bile, concentrating it by up to 10-fold.

Chapter Review

Chemical digestion in the small intestine cannot occur without the help of the liver and pancreas. The liver produces bile and delivers it to the common hepatic duct. Bile contains bile salts and phospholipids, which emulsify large lipid globules into tiny lipid droplets, a necessary step in lipid digestion and absorption. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, releasing it when it is needed by the small intestine.

The pancreas produces the enzyme- and bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice and delivers it to the small intestine through ducts. Pancreatic juice buffers the acidic gastric juice in chyme, inactivates pepsin from the stomach, and enables the optimal functioning of digestive enzymes in the small intestine.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Why does the pancreas secrete some enzymes in their inactive forms, and where are these enzymes activated?
2. Describe the location of hepatocytes in the liver and how this arrangement enhances their function.

Show Answers

Glossary

accessory duct: (also, duct of Santorini) duct that runs from the pancreas into the duodenum

acinus: cluster of glandular epithelial cells in the pancreas that secretes pancreatic juice in the pancreas

bile: alkaline solution produced by the liver and important for the emulsification of lipids

bile canaliculus: small duct between hepatocytes that collects bile

bilirubin: main bile pigment, which is responsible for the brown color of feces

central vein: vein that receives blood from hepatic sinusoids

common bile duct: structure formed by the union of the common hepatic duct and the gallbladder’s cystic duct

common hepatic duct: duct formed by the merger of the two hepatic ducts

cystic duct: duct through which bile drains and enters the gallbladder

enterohepatic circulation: recycling mechanism that conserves bile salts

enteropeptidase: intestinal brush-border enzyme that activates trypsinogen to trypsin

gallbladder: accessory digestive organ that stores and concentrates bile

hepatic artery: artery that supplies oxygenated blood to the liver

hepatic lobule: hexagonal-shaped structure composed of hepatocytes that radiate outward from a central vein

hepatic portal vein: vein that supplies deoxygenated nutrient-rich blood to the liver

hepatic sinusoid: blood capillaries between rows of hepatocytes that receive blood from the hepatic portal vein and the branches of the hepatic artery

hepatic vein: vein that drains into the inferior vena cava

hepatocytes: major functional cells of the liver

liver: largest gland in the body whose main digestive function is the production of bile

pancreas: accessory digestive organ that secretes pancreatic juice

pancreatic juice: secretion of the pancreas containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate

porta hepatis: “gateway to the liver” where the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein enter the liver

portal triad: bile duct, hepatic artery branch, and hepatic portal vein branch

reticuloendothelial cell: (also, Kupffer cell) phagocyte in hepatic sinusoids that filters out material from venous blood from the alimentary canal

Glands of the digestive system – what is it, definition and answer

Liver – the largest gland in our body, its mass is 1. 5-2 kg.

• The human liver is located mainly in the right hypochondrium, under the diaphragm.

• The liver tissue consists of lobules, which in turn consist of liver cells – hepatocytes, having a polygonal shape.

• They continuously produce bile, which is collected in microscopic ducts that merge into one common bile.

• It opens into the duodenum, through which bile enters.

Figure 1. Schematic structure of the liver

Liver functions are diverse: = regulates the metabolism of proteins and amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates and biologically active substances (hormones, vitamins), microelements . The liver is involved in the regulation of water metabolism.

Functions of bile:

• Bile stops the action of gastric juice in the small intestine by inactivating pepsin.

• Activates pancreatic juice lipase;

• Emulsifies fats while separating them into small particles.

• Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, K, E).

• The enzymes that make up the secretion activate intestinal peristalsis . WARNING! Bile is stored in the gallbladder and synthesized in the liver.

Pancreas

Figure 2 Schematic structure of the pancreas It produces pancreatic juice that enters the duodenum, containing enzymes that break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

The most important components of pancreatic juice:

• bicarbonate (NaHCO ₃ ), which neutralizes the acidic contents of the stomach,

• peptidase enzymes ( trip syn and chymotrypsin ) decompose proteins and oligopeptides to amino acids . Under the influence of pancreatic juice, the main chemical processing of all food components occurs.

  Salivary glands

  These are the largest of all salivary glands. They are located subcutaneously and lie in the parotid-masticatory region on the branch of the lower jaw, in the masticatory muscle and the maxillary fossa. Saliva from the parotid glands enters the oral cavity through a duct that opens on the mucous membrane of the cheek opposite the upper second large molar.

• Submandibular glands . In size, they are the average of all three glands, about the size of a walnut. These glands lie in the submandibular cellular space of the floor of the mouth under the maxillohyoid muscles. The excretory duct of the submandibular gland – Wharton’s duct – runs along the inner surface of the sublingual gland and opens on the sublingual papilla on its own or together with the duct of the sublingual gland.

• Sublingual glands. The sublingual gland is 2-3 times smaller than the submandibular gland. It is located under the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth in the region of the sublingual folds above the maxillohyoid muscle.

Motor function of the gallbladder: what you need to know

Contents 2 Related videos:

1. 10 Treatment of disorders of motor activity of the gallbladder

The motor function of the gallbladder is the ability of the organ to contract and relax to ensure the normal functioning of the gallbladder and the excretion of bile. The article will talk about the role of motor function, its disorders and methods of treatment.

The gallbladder is one of the main organs of the digestive system responsible for the accumulation and excretion of bile. It is essential for the proper functioning of the body. The main role of the gallbladder is to regulate the release of bile into the intestines to aid in digestion.

The motor function of the gallbladder is carried out with the help of special muscles – the smooth muscles of the gallbladder, which contract and relax under the influence of nerve impulses. This mechanism allows the bladder to store and release bile at specific times, depending on the needs of the body.

Proper motor function of the gallbladder plays an important role in digestion. When food enters the stomach, the bladder begins to contract so that bile enters the intestines and participates in the breakdown of fats and nutrients. At the same time, the presence of a certain balance and coordination between muscle contraction and relaxation allows the process of accumulation and excretion of bile to be carried out smoothly.

The gallbladder can be subject to various disorders in its motor function, which can lead to various health problems. Therefore, it is important to know and understand the basic principles of the gallbladder and its motor function in order to take appropriate measures to maintain its health and prevent possible problems.

Importance of motor function of the gallbladder

Motor function of the gallbladder plays an important role in the process of digestion and maintaining the health of the body.

The gallbladder, located below the liver, serves as a reserve reservoir for bile produced by the liver. This bile plays a key role in the process of lipid digestion, participating in their emulsification and assimilation by the body. The motor function of the gallbladder allows it to contract and relax, allowing bile to be pushed into the intestines as needed.

The motor function of the gallbladder in humans allows you to maintain an optimal level of bile in the body and regulate the digestion process in accordance with the needs of the body. Disruption of this function can lead to various problems, such as the formation of gallstones or inflammation of the gallbladder.

Proper nutrition is recommended to maintain healthy gallbladder motility, including regular intake of foods rich in soluble fiber and low in saturated fat. Moderate physical exercise is also beneficial, as it helps to activate the motor function of the bladder and improve the general condition of the body.

Related videos:

Gallbladder: its structure and functions

The gallbladder is an organ located under the liver and is part of the digestive system. It has the shape of a pouch and consists of several layers of the wall, which provide its elasticity and the ability to expand and contract. The wall of the gallbladder consists of an inner mucosal layer, a middle muscular layer, and an outer mucosal layer.

One of the main functions of the gallbladder is to store and concentrate bile produced by the liver. Bile plays an important role in digestion, aiding in the breakdown of fats and the absorption of nutrients. When food enters the intestines, the gallbladder contracts and releases all the stored bile through the bile duct into the intestines.

The structure and function of the gallbladder is carefully coordinated with other organs of the digestive system such as the liver, pancreas and intestines. They work together to ensure efficient digestion and nutrient absorption. Gallbladder dysfunction can lead to various problems, such as gallstones or chronic cholecystitis, and requires medical attention.

Role of bile in the body

Bile is an important fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Its main role is to help the body digest and absorb food, especially fats. Bile contains bile acids, which help emulsify fats and break them down into tiny particles for better absorption in the intestines.

In addition, bile plays an important role in cholesterol metabolism. It helps to remove excess amounts of this substance from the body, preventing its deposition in the walls of blood vessels and the formation of diseases such as atherosclerosis. Therefore, a violation of the motor function of the gallbladder can lead to disorders in cholesterol metabolism and the emergence of various pathologies.

One of the most important functions of bile is participation in the process of removing toxins from the body. Bile helps to remove excess bile pigments, bilirubin and other metabolic products that can harm the body if left in it.

It is also worth noting that bile plays a role in the process of intestinal peristalsis. This helps to maintain the normal functioning of the intestinal flora and facilitates the digestion of food. In addition, bile contains antimicrobial components that help prevent the growth and reproduction of dangerous microorganisms.

By removing the formed bile into the intestines, the body is freed from many harmful substances that can accumulate in the liver. At the same time, bile is involved in the process of absorption of vitamins, trace elements and other essential substances.

Thus, bile plays an important role in the body, supporting normal digestion, metabolism and elimination of toxins. Violation of the motor function of the gallbladder can lead to serious health problems and requires careful attention and timely treatment.

Relationship between gallbladder motor activity and digestion

Gallbladder motor activity plays an important role in the body’s digestive process. The gallbladder is a reservoir for the accumulation and concentration of bile, which is then released into the intestine to participate in the process of fat decomposition.

The main functions of bile are the emulsification of fats and the absorption of liposolubile vitamins. The motor activity of the gallbladder controls the secretion of bile in response to food intake. As food enters the intestines, contractions of the gallbladder allow bile to enter the hepatic ducts and enter the intestines to aid digestion.

Regulation of motor activity of the gallbladder is carried out through the influence of the nervous system and hormones. The sympathetic nervous system inhibits gallbladder contraction, while the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates gallbladder contraction. Hormones such as cholecystokinin and secretin also play an important role in regulating the motor activity of the gallbladder in response to food intake.

Conclusions: the motor activity of the gallbladder is directly related to digestion. It controls the secretion of bile, which ensures the efficient decomposition of fats and the absorption of essential nutrients. Disturbances in the motor activity of the gallbladder can lead to various digestive problems, such as difficult digestion of fats and a lack of liposolubile vitamins.

How the motor function of the gallbladder works

The gallbladder is a small vessel that plays an important role in the digestion process. It stores bile, a fluid that is produced by the liver and helps break down fats in the intestines. The motor function of the gallbladder allows it to perform its role effectively.

When food enters the stomach, it begins to move through the digestive tract. When needed, it is at this point that the gallbladder is activated and begins to contract. The contraction allows the accumulated bile to be thrown out into the intestines, where it will participate in the digestion process.

The motor function of the gallbladder depends on a balance between various mechanisms:

• Nervous system – signals from the nerves help to activate the contractile movements of the gallbladder;
• Hormonal regulation – hormones such as cholecystokinin stimulate gallbladder contraction;
• Mechanical pressure – tension in the intestines during the movement of food stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder.

The unique structure of the gallbladder also plays an important role in its motor function. The inner surface of the gallbladder is covered with a mucous membrane with many wrinkles and papillae that help retain bile and prevent its backflow.

The contraction of the gallbladder occurs in response to various stimuli associated with the process of digestion. This allows the body to use bile efficiently, improving digestion and nutrient absorption.

Factors affecting the motor function of the gallbladder

The motor function of the gallbladder depends on a number of factors, which may be external or internal.

External factors such as food play an important role in stimulating the gallbladder. Particularly spicy, fatty or heavy meals can cause bladder contractions and stimulate bile flow. This occurs in response to the presence of food in the stomach, which activates the reflexes associated with the work of the bladder.

However, there are internal factors that also affect the motor function of the gallbladder. These are hormones, the nervous system, and the cystic muscle fiber itself. Hormonal regulation is carried out mainly through cholecystokinin (CCK), which stimulates the contraction of the sphincter of Oddi and bladder contraction. The nervous system, in turn, controls the motor activity of the bladder through the vagus and sympathetic innervation.

In addition, the motor function of the gallbladder can be impaired under the influence of various pathological conditions. For example, gallstone disease or inflammatory processes in the bladder can lead to its deformation and dysmotility. As well as various disorders of the locomotor apparatus of the digestive system and diseases of the central nervous system can affect the functioning of the gallbladder.

In summary, understanding the factors that influence gallbladder motor function is of great clinical importance for the diagnosis and treatment of gallbladder disease.

Causes and symptoms of impaired motor activity of the gallbladder

The gallbladder is an important organ responsible for the secretion and accumulation of bile necessary for digestion. Violation of its motor activity leads to various disorders and symptoms that require attention and treatment.

One of the causes of disorders in the motor activity of the gallbladder is cholelithiasis. In this case, the formation of stones in the bladder leads to a violation of its contractile function. In addition, dysmotility can be caused by diseases of the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis), biliary tract (choledocholithiasis, constipation of the bile ducts), eating disorders (malnutrition, overeating) and nervous factors (stress, emotional overstrain).

Gallbladder motility symptoms can manifest themselves in a variety of ways. In particular, patients may experience pain in the right hypochondrium, which is aggravated after eating, especially fatty and spicy. Nausea and vomiting are also observed, often occurring after eating, especially the wrong one. Jaundice of the skin and sclera of the eyes is another symptom of impaired motility of the gallbladder, which indicates a violation of the outflow of bile.

For the diagnosis and treatment of gallbladder motility disorders, it is recommended to consult a qualified physician. He will conduct the necessary studies (ultrasound, x-ray, gastrofibroscopy) to establish an accurate diagnosis and select the appropriate treatment. Diet and drugs aimed at restoring normal gallbladder motility are usually used as the first line of therapy.

Diagnosis of disorders of motor function of the gallbladder

Various methods are used to diagnose disorders of the motor function of the gallbladder, allowing to evaluate its work and identify possible disorders. The main diagnostic methods include clinical examination and history taking, laboratory and instrumental studies.

Clinical examination and history can help identify characteristic symptoms and medical history that may indicate gallbladder motor dysfunction. The doctor assesses the patient’s complaints, and also conducts a general examination, including palpation and percussion of the abdomen.

Laboratory tests include general and biochemical blood tests, urine and feces. With violations of the motor function of the gallbladder, elevated levels of bilirubin, aminotransferases and other indicators may be observed, indicating a violation of the metabolism of bile pigments and liver function.

Diagnostic imaging includes ultrasound of the biliary tract and gallbladder, cholangiography, computed tomography, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. These methods allow assessing the state of the gallbladder, identifying various pathologies and disorders of its motor function.

In some cases, it may be necessary to perform functional studies of the motor function of the gallbladder, such as cholecystography and cholecystokinetics. These methods make it possible to assess the contractility of the gallbladder, the rate of its emptying and general motor activity.

Treatment of gallbladder motor disorders

Treatment of gallbladder motor disorders depends on the specific diagnosis and severity of symptoms. The main treatment approach includes drug therapy, diet, and physical activity.

In case of spasmodic contractions of the gallbladder, drugs that relax the smooth muscles of the biliary tract, such as myotropic antispasmodics, are used. These drugs help relieve pain and spasms of the gallbladder.

To improve motor activity and reduce bile stasis, drugs are indicated that stimulate the contractility of the smooth muscles of the bladder and bile ducts. Some of these drugs, such as cholinomimetics, can be used to increase gallbladder contractions.

In chronic gallbladder disease, a diet to reduce stress on the gallbladder and bile ducts is recommended. It is important to avoid foods that can cause bladder contractions, such as spicy and fatty foods, alcohol, and certain types of vegetables and fruits.

Physical activity is recommended to increase gallbladder motor activity. Regular exercise, such as walking or swimming, helps strengthen abdominal muscles and improve gallbladder function.

In some cases, if conservative treatment fails, surgery may be required. Surgical treatment may include removal of the gallbladder or restoration of normal motor activity by bypassing or correcting the bile ducts.

Prevention of gallbladder motor dysfunction

To keep your gallbladder healthy and prevent gallbladder dysfunction, you need to follow certain guidelines and take regular care of your digestive system.

Proper and regular nutrition is an important aspect of prevention. You should limit the intake of fatty and fried foods, stick to a diet, avoid overeating and follow a balanced diet. It is recommended to consume more vegetables, fruits, cereals and protein products.

Pay special attention to drinking enough water. Regular drinking will help maintain optimal functioning of the digestive organs, including the gallbladder.

It is also important to stop bad habits such as smoking and drinking alcohol. The negative impact of these substances can adversely affect the functioning of the gallbladder and contribute to the development of its disorders.

Regular physical activity is an essential part of preventing gallbladder motor dysfunction. Moderate exercise helps strengthen muscles and stimulate the proper functioning of the digestive system.

To prevent disorders of the motor function of the gallbladder, it is also recommended to avoid stressful situations, if possible, observe a sleep and rest regimen, as well as monitor your general health and consult a doctor in a timely manner if you have symptoms that indicate a possible problem with the gallbladder.

What you need to know about gallstones

Gallstones are a pathological condition in which stones form in the gallbladder or bile ducts. This is one of the most common diseases of the biliary system.

The main causes of gallstones are irregular diet, overweight, sedentary lifestyle and genetic predisposition. Stones can be of various sizes and can cause a variety of symptoms, from mild discomfort to severe pain.

For the diagnosis of cholelithiasis, it is necessary to consult a gastroenterologist or surgeon. The doctor will perform the necessary tests, such as an ultrasound of the gallbladder and laboratory tests, to determine the presence of stones and the extent to which they may affect the body.

Treatment of gallstones may include conservative methods, such as the use of drugs to break up stones, as well as surgical methods, such as removal of the gallbladder or mechanical destruction of stones using endoscopic procedures.

It is important to note that in most cases gallstones can be prevented by a healthy lifestyle, including regular physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight and proper nutrition.

The importance of a healthy lifestyle for gallbladder function

A healthy lifestyle plays an important role in maintaining normal gallbladder function. Failure to follow a healthy lifestyle can lead to various problems with the function of the gallbladder and a deterioration in the general condition of the body.

One of the most important aspects of a healthy lifestyle for gallbladder function is proper nutrition. Eating a lot of fatty and fried foods can lead to the formation of gallstones and disruption of its function. It is recommended to prefer light and low-fat meals, include more fresh fruits, vegetables and healthy fats in the diet.

Drinking alcohol and smoking can also adversely affect gallbladder function. These bad habits can cause inflammation and irritation of the lining of the bladder, which can lead to malfunction and the formation of stones.

Regular exercise plays an important role in maintaining normal gallbladder function. Physical activity helps improve blood circulation, speeds up metabolism and promotes regular contraction of the bladder, which helps to avoid stasis and the formation of stones.

In addition, stress and lack of sleep can have a negative effect on gallbladder function. Constant tension and lack of rest can cause an imbalance in the work of the bladder and increased formation of gallstones.

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a healthy diet, avoidance of bad habits, regular exercise and sufficient rest, is essential for maintaining normal gallbladder function. This allows you to prevent many problems and ensures the optimal functioning of all organs and systems of the body.

Modern methods of restoring the motor activity of the gallbladder

In case of violation of the motor activity of the gallbladder, it is necessary to apply modern methods of restoring its functions. One of these methods is physiotherapy. It involves the use of various physical factors such as heat, light, electricity, and mechanical action on the gallbladder.

Special exercises and massage are also used to restore the motor activity of the gallbladder. Exercises are aimed at strengthening the muscles of the abdomen and back, as well as increasing the mobility of the gallbladder. Massage improves blood circulation and stimulates the gallbladder.

One of the new methods of restoring the motor activity of the gallbladder is acupuncture. With the help of small needles that are inserted into certain points on the body, the gallbladder is stimulated. This helps to normalize its functions and improve the general condition of the patient.

In some cases where conservative methods fail, surgery may be recommended. The operation is aimed at restoring normal motor activity of the gallbladder by removing stones or correcting deformities.

In any case, the choice of method for restoring the motor activity of the gallbladder depends on the degree of dysfunction of the organ and the individual characteristics of the patient. Therefore, before starting treatment, it is necessary to consult a doctor and conduct appropriate studies.

Q&A:

What are the functions of the gallbladder?

The gallbladder performs several functions, including storing and concentrating bile and releasing it into the duodenum for digestion.

What can lead to impaired motor function of the gallbladder?

Gallbladder motor dysfunction can be caused by a variety of causes, including gallstone disease, gallbladder inflammation, obesity, certain drugs, and others.