How does the lymphatic system protect our body. What are the key components of this complex network. Why is understanding lymphatic anatomy crucial for overall health. Discover the intricate details of our body’s defense mechanism.

The Bone Marrow: Birthplace of Immune Cells

The lymphatic system, often overlooked, plays a crucial role in our body’s defense mechanisms. At the heart of this complex network lies the bone marrow, a seemingly unlikely hero in our immune response. But what makes bone marrow so essential to our lymphatic system?

Red bone marrow serves as the production site for lymphocytes, the white blood cells responsible for identifying and neutralizing harmful pathogens. These lymphocytes come in two main varieties:

• B lymphocytes: Produced and matured in the bone marrow
• T lymphocytes: Produced in the bone marrow but matured in the thymus gland

B lymphocytes are the antibody factories of our immune system. Once they encounter a specific antigen – be it a virus, bacterium, or other foreign substance – they spring into action, producing tailor-made antibodies to combat the threat. After maturing, these cells migrate through the bloodstream to other lymphatic organs, such as the spleen and lymph nodes, where they await activation.

T lymphocytes, on the other hand, take a different path. While also born in the bone marrow, they complete their education in the thymus gland. These cells are the assassins of the immune system, primarily responsible for destroying infected body cells. Interestingly, some research suggests they may also play a role in fighting cancer, though the full extent of this function is still being explored.

The Thymus: Training Ground for T Lymphocytes

Located in the thoracic cavity, the thymus is a soft, roughly triangular organ that plays a pivotal role in our immune and lymphatic systems. While it does produce hormones, its primary function is far more complex and crucial to our body’s defense mechanisms.

The thymus serves as a rigorous training academy for T lymphocytes, teaching them to distinguish between friend and foe. This education process occurs in two critical stages:

1. Antigen Exposure: Immature T lymphocytes are introduced to foreign bodies or antigens. Those that react appropriately to these threats are selected to move on to the next stage.
2. Self-Antigen Testing: The surviving T lymphocytes are then exposed to the body’s own antigens. Any cells that react to these self-antigens are eliminated to prevent autoimmune responses.

Only about 2% of T lymphocytes successfully complete this rigorous training. These graduates are then released into the bloodstream, where they either circulate, ready to engage threats, or take up residence in lymph nodes, awaiting their call to action.

Interestingly, unlike most organs that grow with age, the thymus follows a unique developmental pattern. It enlarges during childhood when the immune system is building its army of T lymphocytes. However, with the onset of puberty, the thymus begins to shrink, having completed its primary mission of populating the body with these crucial immune cells.

The Spleen: Blood Filtration and Immune Response Hub

Nestled in the upper left part of the abdomen and protected by the rib cage, the spleen stands as the largest lymphatic organ in the human body. But what exactly does this organ do, and why is it so crucial to our lymphatic system?

The spleen serves a dual purpose in our body: it manages blood quality and quantity while also playing a vital role in fighting infections. Let’s break down these functions:

Blood Quality Control

As blood flows into the spleen, it undergoes a thorough quality check. The spleen detects and removes old or damaged red blood cells, breaking them down and recycling useful components like iron for future use. This process ensures that our circulating blood is of the highest quality, optimizing oxygen transport and overall cellular health.

Additionally, the spleen acts as a blood reservoir, storing approximately 250ml (about 1 cup) of blood. This reserve can be released into circulation in times of need, such as during significant blood loss from trauma or surgery.

Infection Fighting Powerhouse

The spleen’s role in combating infections truly cements its status as a crucial lymphatic organ. Approximately 20% of the spleen’s tissue is lymphoid, where lymphocytes are produced and matured. When invaders are detected in the bloodstream, the spleen springs into action, much like a lymph node.

It rapidly produces an army of lymphocytes to weaken or destroy bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful organisms. This swift response helps prevent the spread of infection throughout the body, making the spleen an indispensable part of our immune defense system.

The Tonsils: Guardians of the Throat

Once considered unnecessary and often removed without much thought, tonsils have recently been recognized for their important role in our immune system. These large clusters of lymphatic cells, located in the pharynx, serve as our first line of defense against pathogens attempting to enter the body through the mouth or nose.

There are actually three sets of tonsils, each playing a unique role in protecting us from infection and disease:

• Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids): Located at the base of the nasal cavity
• Palatine tonsils: The oval-shaped masses visible on either side of the throat
• Lingual tonsils: Found at the base of the tongue

The pharyngeal tonsils, commonly known as adenoids, are positioned strategically at the base of the nasal cavity. Their primary function is to protect the lungs by producing lymphocytes that trap bacteria and viruses entering through the nose. This first line of defense is particularly crucial in children, whose immune systems are still developing.

Palatine tonsils are the most visible of the three, appearing as the oval-shaped masses protruding from either side of the throat behind the mouth cavity. These tonsils work tirelessly to prevent infections from reaching the esophagus and digestive system. They accomplish this by trapping pathogens and initiating an immune response to neutralize these threats before they can progress further into the body.

The lingual tonsils, located at the base of the tongue, complete this protective ring. While less visible than their counterparts, they play an equally important role in safeguarding our respiratory and digestive tracts from invading pathogens.

The Appendix: More Than Just a Vestigial Organ

For years, the appendix was dismissed as a useless vestigial organ, often removed without much consideration. However, recent research has shed new light on this small, finger-shaped pouch attached to the large intestine. So, what role does the appendix play in our lymphatic and immune systems?

The appendix is now recognized as an important part of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) system. This system is a critical component of our body’s immune defense, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. The appendix contains a high concentration of lymphoid follicles, which are small, dome-shaped structures filled with immune cells.

These follicles play several important roles:

1. Pathogen Detection: They sample and monitor the contents of the gut, detecting potentially harmful bacteria or viruses.
2. Immune Response Initiation: When threats are detected, the appendix can quickly initiate an immune response, producing and releasing antibodies to neutralize the invaders.
3. Beneficial Bacteria Storage: The appendix may serve as a safe house for beneficial gut bacteria, helping to repopulate the intestines after illness or antibiotic use.

This new understanding of the appendix’s function has led to a more conservative approach in medical treatment. While appendectomies are still performed when necessary, there’s a growing recognition that preserving the appendix, when possible, may have long-term benefits for gut health and immune function.

Lymph Nodes: The Body’s Filtration Stations

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures scattered throughout the body, serving as crucial filtration points in the lymphatic system. But how exactly do these tiny organs contribute to our overall health and immunity?

Lymph nodes act as checkpoints for lymph, the clear fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system. As lymph flows through these nodes, it’s carefully screened for any signs of harmful substances or abnormal cells. This process involves several key functions:

• Filtration: Lymph nodes trap and filter out potentially harmful substances, preventing them from spreading further in the body.
• Immune Cell Activation: When threats are detected, lymph nodes become sites of intense immune activity, producing and activating lymphocytes to combat the invaders.
• Antigen Presentation: Specialized cells in lymph nodes present antigens (fragments of pathogens) to T lymphocytes, triggering a targeted immune response.
• Antibody Production: B lymphocytes in lymph nodes produce antibodies specific to the detected threats, enhancing the body’s ability to neutralize them.

Lymph nodes are strategically positioned throughout the body, with major clusters found in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. This distribution ensures comprehensive surveillance of lymph from all body regions.

When fighting an infection, lymph nodes may become swollen and tender as they work overtime to produce immune cells and filter out pathogens. This swelling, while sometimes uncomfortable, is often a sign that our immune system is actively responding to a threat.

The Interconnected Nature of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a complex network that extends throughout the body, working in close coordination with the circulatory and immune systems. But how do all these components work together to maintain our health?

At its core, the lymphatic system serves three primary functions:

1. Fluid Balance: It collects excess fluid from tissues and returns it to the bloodstream, preventing edema (swelling).
2. Immune Defense: It serves as a highway for immune cells and antibodies, facilitating rapid responses to infections.
3. Fat Absorption: In the intestines, specialized lymphatic vessels called lacteals absorb dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins.

The system’s components work in harmony to achieve these functions. Lymphatic vessels, similar to blood vessels but with thinner walls, form an extensive network throughout the body. These vessels transport lymph, which carries immune cells, debris, and excess fluids.

As lymph travels through this network, it passes through numerous lymph nodes. These nodes act as filtration stations, trapping pathogens and abnormal cells while also serving as hubs for immune cell activation and proliferation.

The spleen, thymus, and other lymphatic organs contribute to this system by producing, maturing, and storing immune cells. They also provide specialized environments for immune responses to occur.

This intricate system doesn’t work in isolation. It’s closely tied to the circulatory system, with lymph eventually returning to the bloodstream. It also interacts constantly with the immune system, with many immune cells residing in or traveling through lymphatic tissues.

Understanding this interconnected nature helps us appreciate the lymphatic system’s crucial role in maintaining overall health. It’s not just about individual components, but how they work together as a cohesive unit to protect and maintain our body’s equilibrium.

Anatomy of the Lymphatic System

The appendix has often been seen more as a nuisance rather than an important part of the human anatomy, often leading to its indiscriminate removal. However, it has recently been identified as playing an important part in our immune response.

There is much more to the lymphatic system than the network of vessels and nodes with which it is most commonly associated. Indeed there are several organs of the body that connect the lymphatic and immune systems together. Let’s start with one that many would not associate with the lymphatic system – Bone Marrow.

Bone Marrow

Red bone marrow is an extremely important part of the lymphatic system, as it produces lymphocytes – white blood cells that are responsible for identifying and destroying viruses, bacteria and other pathogens.

B LYMPHOCYTES are responsible for producing antibodies to fight a specific virus, bacteria or antigen that enters the body. They mature in the red bone marrow before migrating through the blood to other lymphatic organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes where they await activation.  This occurs when their specific antigen is picked up in the lymphatic fluid and detected in the lymph nodes.

T LYMPHOCYTES are also produced by red bone marrow, but mature in the thymus gland before migrating to other lymphatic organs. They are primarily responsible for destroying infected body cells and may also help fight cancer.

The Thymus

The thymus is a soft, roughly triangular organ located in the thoracic cavity. As a gland, it produces a number of hormones, but its role in the immune and lymphatic systems is much more significant.

The thymus is responsible for the maturing of T-Lymphocites that are produced by red bone marrow (see previous post), by teaching them to attack only viruses, bacteria and other pathogens rather than the body’s own cells. This is done in two stages.

In the first stage, the immature T-Lymphocytes are exposed to foreign bodies – or ‘antigens’. Those T-Lymphocytes that react to these antigens are selected to survive and move onto the second stage.

Stage two involves the maturing T-Lymphocytes being presented with the body’s own antigens. T-Lymphocytes that react to these test positive for autoimmunity which means that they will attack the body’s own cells. These are eliminated.

The T-Lymphocytes that graduate Thymus University (a mere 2%!) are released into the bloodstream where they will either circulate looking for a fight or take up residence in a handy lymph node awaiting their call to action.

Unlike most organs that continue to grow as we age, the thymus enlarges during childhood then starts to shrink with the onset of puberty, as the immune system produces most of its T-Lymphocytes during childhood.

The Spleen

The spleen is located in the upper left part of the abdomen, protected by the rib cage and is the largest lymphatic organ in the body. As lymph nodes filter and clean lymphatic fluid, so the spleen does the same for our blood. It does this in two ways; the first is by managing the quality and to some degree, quantity of blood in circulation and the second is by fighting infection

QUALITY CONTROL: As blood flows into the spleen a quality control check is carried out, to detect any red blood cells that are old or damaged. These are then broken down and any useful leftovers – iron for example – will be stored for later use

The spleen also acts as a reservoir for blood storing approximately 1 cup (250ml), ready to be released if there is a significant loss of blood (after an accident or any other trauma for example)

FIGHTING INFECTION: However it is the spleen’s role in fighting infection that marks it out as a lymphatic organ. The spleen is made up of approximately 20% lymphoid tissue where our old friends, lymphocytes are produced and mature. When any invaders are detected in the bloodstream, the spleen will act much like a lymph node and will create an army of lymphocytes to  weaken or kill the bacteria, viruses, or other organisms that could cause infection.

The Tonsils

Once thought of as an unnecessary and obsolete part of the anatomy, the tonsils are actually large clusters of lymphatic cells located in the pharynx – the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity – and in childhood they are our first line of defence against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens attempting to enter the body through the mouth or nose.

There are in fact THREE sets of tonsils which each help fight infection and disease:

The PHARYNGEAL tonsils – or ‘adenoids’ are located at the base of the nasal cavity and they protect the lungs by producing lymphocytes to trap any bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the nose.

The PALATINE tonsils are the oval shaped masses that protrude from either side of the throat behind the mouth cavity. They prevent infection of the oesophagus and digestive tract by destroying pathogens attempting to enter the body via the mouth.

The LINGUAL tonsils sit at the very base of the tongue, and comprise lymphatic tissue containing T and B Lymphocytes that will be activated when harmful bacteria and viruses are detected.

Given their exposure to pathogens, it is not surprising the tonsils themselves are highly susceptible to infection and their removal (tonsillectomy) is still one of the most frequently performed childhood operations if recurring infection becomes problematic. However, the longer the tonsils can be retained, the better the opportunity the body has to develop immunity against the most common infections, making the tonsils less critical in the fight against infection and disease.

The Appendix

The appendix is a pouch of lymphatic tissue that is attached at the end of the large intestine (cecum), located in the lower-right area of the abdomen. The appendix has often been seen more as a nuisance rather than an important part of the human anatomy, often leading to its indiscriminate removal. However, it has recently been identified as playing an important part in our immune response.

Lymphatic tissue starts to appear in the appendix shortly after birth and reaches a peak between the second and third decades of life, decreasing rapidly thereafter and practically disappearing after the age of 60. During the early years of development, the appendix has been shown to function as a lymphoid organ, assisting with the maturation of B-lymphocytes by exposing them to the wide variety of foreign bodies (antigens) that are present in the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract thereby providing a degree of local immunity.

Recent research has also found that lymphatic tissue encourages the growth of some beneficial gut bacteria that plays an important role in human digestion and immunity. According to the so-called ‘safe house theory’ the appendix protects a sample of this beneficial gut bacteria when certain diseases wipe them out from elsewhere in the GI tract. Once the immune system has rid the body of the infection, the bacteria emerge from the appendix and recolonise the gut.

The appendix was often routinely removed and discarded during other abdominal surgeries to prevent any possibility of any later attack of appendicitis. This is no longer the case, and in fact the tissue from a healthy appendix has been used in reconstructive bladder and renal surgery. As a result, the appendix is no longer removed if it is healthy.

What Is an Appendix, and What Does It Do?

The ‘Safe House’ Theory of the Appendix

Some scientists now believe the appendix is not useless after all, and may help our guts recover after a gastrointestinal disease strikes.

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The appendix contains a particular type of tissue associated with the lymphatic system, which carries the white blood cells needed to fight infections. In recent years, scientists have found that lymphatic tissue encourages the growth of some beneficial gut bacteria, which play an important role in human digestion and immunity.

Studies have also shown that the lining of the gut contains a biofilm, or a thin layer of microbes, mucus, and immune system molecules — and these biofilms appear to be most pronounced in the appendix. (5)

According to the so-called “safe house” theory, the appendix protects a collection of beneficial gut bacteria when certain diseases wipe them out from elsewhere in the GI tract. Once the immune system has rid the body of the infection, the bacteria emerge from the appendix biofilm and recolonize the gut. (6)

A review of the relevant available research published in 2016 concluded that the appendix is not a rudimentary organ but an “important part” of the immune system. (7)

Researchers have recently found that numerous animals, including great apes, other primates, opossums, wombats, rabbits, and certain rodents all have structures similar to the appendix. (8) The appendix, it seems, may have independently evolved in different animals at least 32 times over the course of history, suggesting the organ does have an important function. (4)

Potential Health Issues Involving the Appendix

Sometimes, the appendix can become inflamed and infected, resulting in a condition called appendicitis.

Appendicitis is often the result of an abdominal infection that has spread to the tiny organ, or some kind of obstruction that has blocked the small opening of the appendix. Sources of blockage include, among other things:

• Hard pieces of stool
• Parasites or intestinal worms
• Ingested objects, including air gun pellets and pins
• Abdominal trauma
• GI tract ulcers
• Enlarged appendix lymphatic tissue

The infection or obstruction causes the bacteria in the appendix to grow out of control, and the organ can fill with pus and swell. Appendicitis causes intense abdominal pain and other GI symptoms, including vomiting and diarrhea. Removal of the appendix (an appendectomy) is often the necessary course of action, though increasingly, antibiotics may be recommended and used to treat the infection without the need for surgical intervention — depending on the severity of the case and other health factors in the individual patient. If the problem is left untreated, the pressure in the organ will increase until the appendix ruptures, or bursts.

When the appendix bursts, it spreads its content throughout the abdomen, potentially infecting the peritoneum, which is the silk-like membrane that lines the abdominal cavity. A peritoneum infection, called peritonitis, can then lead to sepsis, a complication that’s potentially deadly if not treated aggressively. (9)

Additional reporting by Deborah Shapiro.

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Why an appendix is ​​needed

The human body is a complex system. Each organ, particle has its own function. And only one of them, according to many, is superfluous in this harmonious system. This is an appendix.

The appendix, or appendix, is an appendage of the caecum. The rudiment resembles a cylinder, its length reaches 12 cm, its diameter is 8 mm.

The appendix may have a different location: below, in the side, behind the caecum, may be adjacent to the kidney or ureter. This complicates the stage of diagnosis of the inflammatory process, and also complicates the operation.

The walls of the rudiment contain a large number of lymphatic vessels. They form a single network through which lymph enters the lymph nodes or solitary follicles. The lymphatic system of the appendix performs a protective function in inflammatory processes of the digestive system. But this is precisely the main cause of inflammation of the appendix.

Every year, 5 out of 1000 people are diagnosed with inflammation of appendicitis with an acute course of the disease. Therefore, this disease is the main among the ailments requiring surgical intervention.

Should I have my appendix removed?

Many believe that the appendix is ​​not involved in the process of digestion, which means that it can be removed without harm to the body, without waiting for the onset of the inflammatory process. In order to understand whether it is worth getting rid of the rudiment, you need to understand its functions.

The human body contains a large number of different microorganisms. They take part in the process of digestion and perform a protective function – they do not allow “foreign” pathogenic bacteria to penetrate into the body. “Good bacteria” and man create a symbiosis. Bacteria take food and a home from the human body, and in return help digest food and protect against harmful microorganisms. At this stage, the appendix with the function of a protective barrier is connected. Intestinal infections are often accompanied by diarrhea, which remove symbiont bacteria from the body. But some of them remain in the appendix and begin to multiply. This helps fight the infection. If the appendix is ​​removed, the patient develops dysbacteriosis.

We can conclude that it is not worth removing the appendix unnecessarily. This was confirmed by studies of the Americans. They began to cut out the appendix from infants. Further observations showed the fallacy of this action. Children could not digest their mother’s milk. They began to appear deviations in mental and physical development. The main reason for this was violations in the digestive system. Accordingly, there were problems with growth. Children with remote appendix were more likely to suffer from infectious diseases, intestinal infections, including dysbacteriosis. These observations forced the Americans to abandon this method of preventing appendicitis.

The operation should be performed only in case of acute inflammation of the rudiment. In this case, it is a vital surgical manipulation. If the operation is not carried out in time, sepsis and peritonitis will develop. Therefore, at the first signs of an inflammatory process, contact our surgeon. He will conduct the necessary studies and, after confirming the diagnosis, will prescribe an operation.

Appendix: anatomy and functions

The appendix is ​​considered in modern medicine to be a rudimentary organ, that is, it has lost its significance in the process of evolution of the organism. The appendix is ​​tubular, 4.5 to 15 cm long and up to 10 mm in diameter. The organ has a mesentery that maintains its relative mobility and holds its topography. The appendix communicates with the cecum with a funnel-shaped opening, and its distal end ends blindly and communicates with the cavity of the caecum. The walls have a mucous, submucosal, serous and muscular layer.

Functions of the organ

The functional purpose of the rudimentary organ has not yet been fully elucidated. However, it has been reliably proven that the appendix performs secretory, endocrine and protective functions, supports the formation of healthy immunity and the maintenance of intestinal biocenosis. The theory about the futility of appendicitis belongs to the Russian scientist I. Mechnikov. He believes that the appendix does not affect the physiological state of the body and does not impair health or quality of life when it is removed. In adulthood, the appendix completely atrophies and is not able to perform natural functions.

The appendix is ​​considered an intestinal tonsil that stimulates the immune system, improves the body’s protective resources, contains beneficial microflora and regulates the level of lacto- and bifidobacteria in the intestine.

In the appendix there are many lymphatic vessels that form a single lymphoid network. Lymphatic fluid drains into lymph nodes or “solitary follicles” containing lymphoid tissue. The organ has a powerful lymphatic apparatus that regulates the outflow of lymph in the intestines.

Diseases of the appendix

The main disease of the appendix is ​​appendicitis, an acute inflammation of the appendix. Sometimes there are chronic forms of appendicitis. The disease proceeds with acute pain in the iliac region, hyperthermia, and other symptoms of intoxication. The patient has impaired digestion, vomiting, an abundance of gases, and constipation. Appendicitis is diagnosed on the basis of a digital examination of the vagina, rectum, blood biochemistry, positive tests according to Blumberg-Shchetkin, Sitkovsky and others.

Appendicitis is a common surgical pathology of the abdominal cavity and accounts for almost 85% of all urgent hospital admissions. Inflammation is most common in children of school age, in adults aged 25-30 years. For some people, the appendix does not become inflamed throughout life. Treatment is only surgical, involves the removal of the organ.

If in Russia and the CIS countries the removal of the appendix occurs according to indications, then abroad they increasingly offer removal as a preventive measure against the inflammatory process. In the United States, there was a practice when doctors removed the appendix when they were still babies in order to prevent an acute clinical situation in the future. According to the results of tests and further observations of these children, their greater susceptibility to dysbacteriosis, intestinal infections, and impaired digestive functions was noted. Subsequently, preventive measures against appendicitis by appendectomy were discontinued.

The gut contains over a million micro-organisms, beneficial substances that are an essential part of healthy digestion. A symbiosis has been established between a person and the filling of his intestines. Bacteria receive a favorable environment for existence, and the microflora, in turn, is involved in the digestion of food, the formation of stool, and the evacuation of feces. The appendix performs a barrier function in infectious and inflammatory diseases of the intestinal tract.

With a weakened immune system, colonies of pathogenic microorganisms increase, leading to the development of intestinal inflammation: proctitis, paraproctitis. Children are more susceptible to infection, the development of intestinal viral diseases.