What are the key components of male anatomy. How do anatomical structures contribute to overall health. Why is knowledge of male anatomy important for medical professionals and individuals alike. What role does male anatomy play in various bodily functions.

The Foundations of Male Anatomy: Skeletal and Muscular Systems

Male anatomy is a complex and fascinating subject that encompasses various interconnected systems within the human body. At its core, the male anatomical structure is built upon the skeletal and muscular systems, which provide support, protection, and mobility.

The skeletal system in males typically consists of 206 bones, forming the framework for the entire body. These bones vary in size and shape, from the tiny ossicles in the inner ear to the large femur in the thigh. The male skeleton is generally larger and more robust than its female counterpart, with broader shoulders and a narrower pelvis.

Complementing the skeletal system is the muscular system, which comprises over 600 muscles. These muscles work in tandem with the bones to facilitate movement, maintain posture, and generate heat. In males, muscle mass tends to be higher due to the influence of testosterone, resulting in greater upper body strength on average.

Key Differences in Male Skeletal Structure

• Broader shoulders and chest
• Longer arms and legs relative to torso length
• More pronounced brow ridges and jaw
• Narrower pelvic outlet

Understanding these fundamental aspects of male anatomy is crucial for medical professionals, fitness experts, and individuals alike. It provides insights into biomechanics, injury prevention, and overall health management.

The Cardiovascular System in Male Anatomy

The cardiovascular system plays a vital role in male anatomy, responsible for circulating blood throughout the body. This system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood itself. In males, the cardiovascular system has some unique characteristics that set it apart from the female counterpart.

Male hearts are typically larger and have a greater stroke volume, meaning they pump more blood with each contraction. This difference is partly due to the influence of testosterone and the generally larger body size of males. However, this also means that men may be at a higher risk for certain cardiovascular diseases.

Cardiovascular Health in Males

Why do men face higher risks of heart disease? Several factors contribute to this increased risk:

1. Higher blood pressure on average
2. Greater tendency to accumulate abdominal fat
3. Lower levels of protective HDL cholesterol
4. Increased likelihood of engaging in risk behaviors (smoking, excessive alcohol consumption)

Understanding these risk factors is crucial for developing effective prevention strategies and treatment plans tailored to male cardiovascular health.

The Male Reproductive System: Structure and Function

The male reproductive system is a complex network of organs and structures designed to produce, store, and transport sperm. This system includes both internal and external components, each playing a crucial role in reproductive function.

External Genitalia

The external genitalia in males consist of the penis and scrotum. The penis is the primary organ of sexual intercourse and urination, composed of erectile tissue that allows for engorgement during arousal. The scrotum houses the testicles, providing a temperature-controlled environment necessary for sperm production.

Internal Reproductive Organs

Internally, the male reproductive system includes:

• Testicles: Produce sperm and testosterone
• Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm
• Vas deferens: Transports sperm from the epididymis
• Seminal vesicles: Produce seminal fluid
• Prostate gland: Secretes prostatic fluid, a component of semen
• Bulbourethral glands: Produce a clear fluid that neutralizes urinary acidity

Understanding the intricacies of the male reproductive system is essential for addressing fertility issues, diagnosing and treating reproductive disorders, and promoting overall reproductive health.

The Endocrine System and Hormonal Balance in Males

The endocrine system plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones. In male anatomy, this system is particularly important for growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

Testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, is produced primarily in the testicles and regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. This hormone is responsible for many male characteristics, including:

• Development of male sexual characteristics during puberty
• Muscle mass and strength
• Bone density
• Body hair distribution
• Sperm production
• Libido

How does testosterone affect male health throughout life? Testosterone levels naturally fluctuate with age, peaking during adolescence and early adulthood, then gradually declining from around age 30. This decline can lead to various symptoms, including reduced muscle mass, increased body fat, decreased libido, and mood changes.

Other Important Hormones in Male Anatomy

While testosterone is the most well-known male hormone, several other hormones play crucial roles in male physiology:

1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Stimulates sperm production
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH): Triggers testosterone production
3. Growth hormone: Promotes growth and cell regeneration
4. Thyroid hormones: Regulate metabolism and energy production
5. Cortisol: Manages stress response and inflammation

Understanding the complex interplay of these hormones is essential for diagnosing and treating hormonal imbalances, which can significantly impact male health and well-being.

The Nervous System in Male Anatomy: Brain and Spinal Cord

The nervous system is a complex network of neurons and supporting cells that control and coordinate all bodily functions. In male anatomy, the nervous system exhibits some unique characteristics that influence behavior, cognition, and physical responses.

The male brain, on average, is about 10% larger than the female brain. However, size does not necessarily correlate with cognitive ability. Instead, the differences lie in the structure and connectivity of certain brain regions.

Key Differences in Male Brain Structure

• Larger amygdala: Associated with emotional processing and memory
• Larger hypothalamus: Regulates hormones and basic functions like hunger and sleep
• More white matter: Facilitates connections between brain regions
• Less dense corpus callosum: The bridge between the brain’s hemispheres

These structural differences may contribute to variations in cognitive processes, emotional responses, and behavior between males and females. However, it’s important to note that individual variations within each sex are often greater than the average differences between sexes.

The Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nervous System

The spinal cord, an extension of the brain, serves as the primary conduit for nerve signals between the brain and the rest of the body. In male anatomy, the spinal cord is typically longer due to greater average height.

The peripheral nervous system, consisting of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord, controls voluntary and involuntary functions throughout the body. This system plays a crucial role in male sexual function, including arousal and ejaculation.

Understanding the intricacies of the male nervous system is essential for diagnosing and treating neurological disorders, as well as for developing targeted therapies that take into account sex-based differences in neural function and structure.

The Respiratory System in Male Anatomy: Lungs and Breathing Mechanics

The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange, providing oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide. In male anatomy, the respiratory system exhibits some distinct characteristics that influence breathing capacity and efficiency.

Male lungs typically have a larger capacity than female lungs, even when accounting for body size differences. This increased capacity is due to several factors:

• Larger chest cavity
• Longer and wider airways
• Greater number of alveoli (air sacs in the lungs)

These anatomical differences result in a higher vital capacity (the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a deep breath) in males compared to females.

Respiratory Function and Exercise

How does the male respiratory system adapt to physical activity? During exercise, the respiratory system undergoes several changes to meet the increased oxygen demands of the body:

1. Increased respiratory rate
2. Deeper breaths to maximize oxygen intake
3. Enhanced gas exchange efficiency in the lungs
4. Greater activation of accessory respiratory muscles

These adaptations allow males to sustain higher levels of physical activity and may contribute to performance differences in endurance sports.

Respiratory Health Considerations for Males

While the male respiratory system offers some advantages in terms of capacity, it also faces unique health challenges:

• Higher risk of sleep apnea due to anatomical factors
• Increased susceptibility to certain respiratory infections
• Greater likelihood of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), particularly in smokers

Understanding these sex-specific aspects of respiratory anatomy and function is crucial for healthcare providers in diagnosing and treating respiratory disorders in male patients.

The Digestive System in Male Anatomy: From Intake to Elimination

The digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. While the basic structure and function of the digestive system are similar in males and females, there are some noteworthy differences in male anatomy that influence digestive processes.

Key Components of the Male Digestive System

The male digestive system consists of several organs working in concert:

• Mouth and esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine (colon)
• Rectum and anus
• Accessory organs: liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

In male anatomy, the digestive tract is generally longer than in females, which can affect transit time and nutrient absorption. Additionally, males typically have a higher basal metabolic rate, influencing calorie requirements and digestion speed.

Digestive Health Considerations for Males

What are the unique digestive health challenges faced by males? Several factors contribute to male-specific digestive health concerns:

1. Higher risk of colorectal cancer
2. Increased likelihood of developing hernias
3. Greater susceptibility to certain digestive disorders, such as peptic ulcers
4. Higher prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in older males

Understanding these sex-specific differences is crucial for healthcare providers in developing targeted screening programs and treatment strategies for male patients.

The Role of Diet in Male Digestive Health

Diet plays a significant role in maintaining digestive health, and male nutritional needs differ somewhat from those of females. Males generally require higher caloric intake due to greater muscle mass and higher basal metabolic rate. Additionally, adequate fiber intake is crucial for maintaining bowel health and reducing the risk of colorectal cancer, a particular concern for men.

Promoting awareness of these dietary considerations can help males make informed choices to support their digestive health and overall well-being.

The Urinary System in Male Anatomy: Kidneys, Bladder, and Prostate

The urinary system is responsible for filtering blood, producing urine, and eliminating waste from the body. In male anatomy, this system has some unique features that distinguish it from the female urinary system.

Key Components of the Male Urinary System

The male urinary system consists of several interconnected organs:

• Kidneys: Filter blood and produce urine
• Ureters: Transport urine from kidneys to bladder
• Bladder: Stores urine
• Urethra: Carries urine from bladder to outside the body
• Prostate gland: Surrounds the urethra and produces prostatic fluid

The most notable difference in male urinary anatomy is the presence of the prostate gland and the longer urethra. The prostate gland, about the size of a walnut, sits below the bladder and surrounds the urethra. It plays a crucial role in both urinary and reproductive functions.

Urinary Health Concerns in Males

What are the common urinary health issues that affect males? Several conditions are more prevalent or unique to male anatomy:

1. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): Enlargement of the prostate, common in older men
2. Prostate cancer: The most common cancer in men after skin cancer
3. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Less common in men but can be more serious when they occur
4. Kidney stones: More prevalent in males than females

Understanding these male-specific urinary health concerns is essential for early detection, prevention, and effective treatment.

The Impact of Lifestyle on Male Urinary Health

Lifestyle factors can significantly influence male urinary health. Maintaining a healthy diet, staying hydrated, exercising regularly, and avoiding tobacco use can all contribute to better urinary system function. Additionally, regular health screenings, particularly for prostate health, are crucial for early detection of potential issues.

By promoting awareness of these lifestyle factors and their impact on urinary health, healthcare providers can empower male patients to take proactive steps in maintaining their overall well-being.

In conclusion, understanding the intricacies of male anatomy is crucial for both medical professionals and individuals alike. From the skeletal and muscular systems that provide structure and movement, to the complex interplay of hormones and organs that regulate bodily functions, each aspect of male anatomy plays a vital role in overall health and well-being. By recognizing the unique characteristics and potential health concerns associated with male anatomy, we can develop more targeted approaches to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of various conditions. This knowledge empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their health and enables healthcare providers to deliver more personalized and effective care. As research in this field continues to advance, our understanding of male anatomy will undoubtedly deepen, leading to improved health outcomes and quality of life for men around the world.

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Anatomy of the male genitourinary system. Urology and Andrology

Anatomy of the male genitourinary system

Human upper urinary tract

9024 3 Male lower urinary tract and genitals

Bladder

Bladder is an organ of the human urinary system. The bladder is located in the pelvis behind the bones of the womb, up from the prostate, in front of the rectum. Part of the upper and posterior walls of the bladder is covered by the parietal peritoneum.
In the bladder, the following parts are anatomically distinguished:

• Fundus of the bladder
• Walls of the bladder (anterior, lateral, posterior)
• Neck of the bladder

The right and left ureters approach the posterior surface of the bladder iki. The neck of the bladder continues into the urethra (urethra). When full, the bladder may protrude above the womb. In this state, the bladder can be felt by hand in the lower abdomen directly above the womb in the form of a rounded formation, when pressed, the urge to urinate occurs. The capacity of the bladder is usually 200-400 ml. The inner surface of the bladder is covered with a mucous membrane.
The main functions of the bladder consist of:

• In the accumulation and retention of urine (continuously flowing from the kidneys through the ureters)
• In the excretion of urine

urine (relaxation and stretching of the walls without a significant increase in intravesical pressure). With a certain degree of stretching of the walls of the bladder, there is an urge to urinate. A healthy adult can retain urine despite the urge to urinate. The retention of urine inside the bladder is carried out with the help of the apparatus of sphincters (valves) that compress the lumen of the bladder neck and urethra. There are two main sphincters of the bladder: the first is involuntary (consists of smooth muscle fibers), is located in the neck of the urinary tract at the outlet to the urethra, the second is arbitrary (consists of striated muscle fibers), is located in the middle part of the pelvic urethra and is part of pelvic floor muscles. During the act of urination, which is normally voluntary in an adult, both sphincters relax and the walls of the bladder contract, which leads to the expulsion of urine. Violation of the functioning of the muscles that expel urine and sphincters leads to various urinary disorders. Frequent diseases of the bladder are infectious inflammation of the mucosa (cystitis), stones, tumors and disorders of the nervous regulation of its functions.

Cavernous body

The cavernous (cavernous) body is a structural part of the penis. The cavernous bodies (right and left) are cylindrical and located inside the penis. The spongy (spongiform) body of the penis is subject to the ventral surface of the cavernous bodies, parallel to them.
Anatomically in the corpus cavernosum are distinguished:0266

In the apical part, the cavernous bodies are covered by the glans penis, which is part of the spongy body. At the pubic joint in the proximal part, the cavernous bodies diverge downward and backward parallel to the descending (sciatic) branches of the pubic bones, to which they are attached by ligaments. In the area of ​​​​the pubic joint, the cavernous bodies are attached to the bones with the help of an unpaired funnel-shaped ligament. Cavernous bodies can be felt in the form of rollers on the right and left inside the penis.
The main function of the cavernous bodies is to provide an erection of the penis (increase in size and hardening of the penis during sexual arousal).
The cavernous body consists of cavernous tissue surrounded by a tunica albuginea. Cavernous tissue has a cellular structure. Each cavity (cell) has the ability to change its internal volume by changing the tone of the smooth muscle elements (trabecular muscles) included in the structure of the walls of the cavity. Blood enters the caverns through arterioles that branch radially from the cavernous artery, located centrally inside the cavernous body. During sexual arousal, in response to the release of a mediator (NO – nitric oxide), due to the relaxation of the trabecular muscles and muscles of the walls of the cavernous arteries, an increase in the lumen of the cavernous arteries and the volume of cavities occurs. The increase in blood flow to the cavernous tissue and the filling of the cavities with a large volume of blood leads to an increase in the total volume of the cavernous tissue (tumescence or swelling of the penis). Normally, the outflow of blood from the cavernous tissue is carried out through the venous plexuses located directly under the albuginea. When the venous plexus is pressed against the albuginea due to an increase in the volume of cavernous tissue during tumescence (the basis of the veno-occlusive mechanism), the outflow of blood from the cavernous bodies decreases, leading to the appearance of a hard erection. At the end of sexual activity (usually after ejaculation), the release of norepinephrine, a sympathetic mediator that increases the tone of the trabecular muscles, leads to the disappearance of an erection (detumescence) in the reverse order of the appearance of an erection. Insufficient blood flow to the cavernous bodies, excessive outflow of venous blood from the cavernous bodies, damage to the nerves that conduct signals for the appearance of an erection, as well as damage to the cavernous tissue leads to a deterioration in the quality of sperm and erection up to its complete absence (impotence).
The albuginea of ​​the cavernous body is a case of the cavernous bodies and consists of elastic connective tissue. During an erection, the albuginea, evenly stretching in different directions, provides a symmetrical increase in the penis. Congenital disorders of the elasticity of the albuginea, cicatricial changes after injuries of the penis and the formation of fibrous plaques on the albuginea in Peyronie’s disease can lead to curvature of the penis during erection.

Kidneys

The kidneys are the main and most important paired organ of the human urinary system. The kidneys are bean-shaped, 10-12 x 4-5 cm in size and are located in the retroperitoneal space on the sides of the spine. The right kidney is crossed by the line of the right 12th rib in half, while 1/3 of the left kidney is above the line of the left 12th rib, and 2/3 is below (i.e., the right kidney is located slightly below the left). On inspiration and when a person moves from a horizontal to a vertical position, the kidneys are displaced downward by 3-5 cm. The fixation of the kidneys in the normal position is ensured by the ligamentous apparatus and the supporting effect of the perirenal fiber. The lower pole of the kidneys can be felt by hand on inspiration in the right and left hypochondria.
The main functions of the kidneys consist of:

• In the regulation of the water-salt balance of the body (maintaining the necessary concentrations of salts and the volume of fluid in the body)
• In the removal of unnecessary and harmful (toxic) substances from the body
• In the regulation of blood pressure

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The kidney, filtering the blood, produces urine, which is collected in the cavitary system and excreted through the ureters into the bladder and further out. Normally, all the blood circulating in the body passes through the kidneys in about 3 minutes. Per minute, 70-100 ml of primary urine is filtered in the renal glomeruli, which subsequently concentrates in the renal tubules, and per day an adult eventually excretes an average of 1-1.5 liters of urine (300-500 ml less than he drank) . The cavitary system of the kidney consists of the calyces and the pelvis. There are three main groups of kidney cups: upper, middle and lower. The main groups of cups, connecting, form the renal pelvis, which then continues into the ureter. Promotion of urine is provided by peristaltic (rhythmic wave-like) contractions of the muscle fibers of the walls of the renal calyces and pelvis. The inner surface of the cavitary system of the kidneys is lined with a mucous membrane (transitional epithelium). Violation of the outflow of urine from the kidney (stone or narrowing of the ureter, vesicoureteral reflux, ureterocele) leads to increased pressure and expansion of the abdominal system. A long-term violation of the outflow of urine from the cavitary system of the kidney can cause damage to its tissue and a serious violation of its function. Most frequent diseases of the kidneys are: bacterial inflammation of the kidney (pyelonephritis), urolithiasis, tumors of the kidney and renal pelvis, congenital and acquired anomalies in the structure of the kidney, leading to impaired outflow of urine from the kidney (hydrocalicosis, hydronephrosis). Other kidney diseases are glomerulonephritis, polycystic disease, and amyloidosis. Many kidney diseases can lead to high blood pressure. The most severe complication of kidney disease is kidney failure, which requires the use of an artificial kidney device or a donor kidney transplant.

Prostate

The prostate gland (prostate) is one of the organs of the male reproductive system. The prostate has the shape of a chestnut, is located in the small pelvis of a man down from the bladder, posterior to the bones of the womb, anterior to the rectum and covers the initial sections of the urethra on four sides. Seminal vesicles are subject to the posterior surface of the prostate. The posterior surface of the prostate can be felt with a finger through the anterior wall of the rectum. The prostate, being a gland, produces its own secretion, which enters the lumen of the urethra through the excretory ducts.
The main functions of the prostate are:

• In the production of part of the seminal fluid (about 30% of the ejaculate volume)
• In participation in the mechanism of ejection of sperm during intercourse
• In participation in the mechanisms of urinary retention

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To the mechanism of erection The prostate has no direct relation to the penis and violations of its quality.

Five anatomical and physiological zones are distinguished in the prostate:

• Anterior fibromuscular
• Peripheral
• Central
• Transient (transitional)
• Periurethral

From a clinical point of view, the transient and peripheral zones are of greatest importance. With age, the transient zone, as a rule, increases in size. With an increase in the size of the transient zone, mechanical compression of the urethra can occur, leading to a violation of the outflow of urine from the bladder. An increase in the transient zone and associated urinary disorders are called adenoma or benign prostatic hyperplasia, which is present in approximately 50% of men aged 50 years and, respectively, 90% of men in their 80s. The importance of the value of the peripheral zone lies in the fact that about 80% of all cancerous tumors of the prostate develop in it. Every sixth or seventh man over 50 years of age has a chance to get prostate cancer, and this chance increases with age. Another common prostate disease that disrupts a man’s quality of life is prostatitis, or inflammation of the prostate.

Testicles

The testes (testes) are the male gonads. The testicles (right and left) are located in the corresponding halves of the scrotum in a man. The spermatic cords, consisting of the membranes of the testis, the testicular artery, the veins of the testicular venous plexus, and the vas deferens, approach the upper pole of each testicle. Along the lateral surfaces of the testicles, from the upper to the lower poles, there are appendages of the testicles, which at the lower pole of the testicle continue into the vas deferens. The testicles can be felt by hand through the skin of the scrotum in the form of rounded formations of an elastic consistency. The epididymis is palpable in the form of ridges on the lateral surface of the testicles.
Basic testicular functions :

• Production of male sex hormone (testosterone)
• Production of spermatozoa (male germ cells necessary for the fertilization process)

Basic functions of the epididymis :

• Transfer of spermatozoa from the testis to the vas deferens duct
• Implementation of the process of maturation of spermatozoa.

Anatomically, the testicle has a parenchyma (testicle tissue itself) and a dense and elastic albuginea surrounding the parenchyma. The bulk of the parenchyma of the testis is made up of many convoluted microscopic tubules lined with spermatogenic epithelium, consisting of Sertoli cells, on which the formation and maturation of spermatozoa occurs. The tubules converge to the superior pole of the testis (a network of straight tubules), where they pass into the tubules of the epididymis. Moving along the tubules of the epididymis, the spermatozoa mature, after which they enter the vas deferens and then through the ejaculatory canals out through the urethra in the process of ejaculation. Between the tubules in the parenchyma of the testicles there are Leydig cells that produce the main male sex hormone – testosterone. The regulation of the concentration of testosterone in the blood is carried out by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland – structures of the brain, due to the greater or lesser release of luteinizing hormone, which in turn stimulates the Leydig cells to release testosterone. Lack of testosterone release can be caused both by poor performance of Leydig cells in case of damage to the testicle (congenital, traumatic or inflammatory changes), and by insufficient secretion of luteinizing hormone by the pituitary gland. Lack of testosterone leads to infertility, decreased sex drive and sometimes causes erectile dysfunction.

The testicle, initially developing in the abdominal cavity of the fetus, in the process of intrauterine development gradually moves downward and by the time of birth (or immediately after them) descends into the scrotal cavity. The need to move the testicles from the abdominal cavity to the scrotum is due to the fact that the process of sperm formation requires a lower temperature than body temperature. Normally, the temperature in the scrotum is 2–4 ° C lower than body temperature.
Moving the testicle into the scrotum leads to some peculiarities of the blood supply and the structure of the membranes. When passing from the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal, the testicle carries along the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall and peritoneum, thus acquiring the muscular and vaginal membranes.
Vessels that feed the testis (artery and veins) originate in the upper abdomen (on the right side – from the aorta and inferior vena cava, on the left side – from the renal arteries and veins) and repeat the path of the testicle to the scrotum in the retroperitoneal space and inguinal canals. Violation of the outflow through the testicular veins (occurs more often on the left) leads to the appearance of varicocele (varicose veins of the spermatic cord), which is a common cause of male infertility.
The presence of a muscular sheath (cremaster muscle or levator testicular muscle) leads to the possibility of pulling the testicle to the outer ring of the inguinal canal. In an upright position, when a finger is passed over the skin along the inner surface of the thigh, the testicle begins to rise upward (cremasteric reflex).
The entrainment of the parietal (parietal) peritoneum by the testicle along with it during the intrauterine movement of the testicle into the scrotum leads to the formation of the vaginal process (protrusion) of the peritoneum, which, by the time of delivery, overgrows in the segment along the spermatic cord, forming a closed serous cavity near the testicle. Non-closure of the vaginal process of the peritoneum leads to the appearance of a congenital inguinal hernia or dropsy of the testicle communicating with the abdominal cavity. The accumulation of fluid in a closed cavity inside the vaginal membranes of the testis leads to the formation of a true dropsy of the testicle (hydrocele).
Failure of the testicle to descend into the scrotum (cryptorchidism) or stopping further progress of the testicle in the abdomen or inguinal canal often results in significant damage to all testicular functions (infertility) and is a risk factor for developing testicular cancer.
Penetration into the epididymis of infection from the urethra through the vas deferens often leads to the development of epididymitis (inflammation of the epididymis). In sexually active men under the age of 30, acute epididymitis in 65% of cases is associated with a sexually acquired chlamydial infection. Inflammation of the epididymis can lead to male infertility due to blockage of the tubules. In addition to inflammation, a common disease of the epididymis is spermatocele (cyst of the epididymis). One of the acute diseases of the testicle is its torsion, a condition requiring emergency care. This disease is similar to inflammation of the testicle and its epididymis (orchiepididymitis), however, if not treated in time, it can lead to testicular necrosis. It occurs more often before the age of 20 years.

Ureters

The ureters are part of the human urinary system. The ureters (right and left) begin at the renal pelvis, pass in the retroperitoneal space on the sides of the spinal column, crossing the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae approximately in the middle, descend into the pelvic cavity, go along the posterior inferior surface of the bladder and, passing through the wall, open with mouths in his cavity. It is impossible to feel the ureters through the abdomen and lower back. The ureters are ducts 27–30 cm long, 5–7 mm in diameter, having a wall with a muscular layer and lined with a mucous membrane along the inner surface (transitional epithelium). The main function of the ureters is to carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Conduction of urine is carried out due to involuntary peristaltic (rhythmic wave-like) contractions of the muscular membrane of the walls of the ureters. Every 15–20 seconds, urine alternately from the ureters enters the cavity of the bladder in portions. Each ureter has mechanisms that prevent the reverse reflux (reflux) of urine from the cavity of the bladder with an increase in intravesical pressure (including contraction of the bladder during urination). Urinary reflux can interfere with the function of the ureter and kidney.
Each ureter has 3 physiological constrictions I, located at the place of discharge from the renal pelvis; on the border of their middle and lower thirds at the intersection with the iliac vessels; at the site of passage within the wall of the bladder.
The presence of narrowing of the ureters is important in urolithiasis, when a calculus (urinary stone) that has entered the ureter from the kidney can linger at the site of the narrowing, disrupting the outflow of urine through the ureter, thus causing renal colic (paroxysmal pain in the lower back and the corresponding half abdomen). The most common diseases of the ureters are: ureteral stones, ureteral strictures (pathological narrowing of the lumen), vesicoureteral reflux, ureterocele (cystic dilation of the intravesical part of the ureter). Tumors of the ureter are rare.

Urethra

The urethra (urethra) is part of the female urinary system and the male urinary and reproductive systems.
In men, the urethra, 20 cm long, is located both in the pelvis and inside the penis, and opens with an external opening on its head.

Anatomically distinguish the following parts of the male urethra :

• External opening
• Navicular fossa
• Penile part
• Bulbos part
• Membrane
• Prostatic urethra (proximal and distal)

Figure taken from www.urologyhealth.org

Prostatic urethra passes through the prostate and divides into a proxy mal and distal parts at the level of the seed tubercle. In the proximal part of the prostatic urethra, the excretory ducts of the prostatic glands open with mouths along the posterolateral surfaces. On the sides of the seminal tubercle are the mouths of the right and left ejaculatory ducts, through which sperm enters the lumen of the urethra from the seminal vesicles and vas deferens. In the distal part of the prostatic part and in the membranous part of the urethra, elements of the urethral sphincter are located. Starting from the bulbar region, the urethra passes inside the spongy body of the penis. The bulbar region is located inside the bulb of the spongy body. In the membranous and bulbar sections, the urethra bends anteriorly upwards. In the penile region, the urethra is located medially along the ventral surface of the penis downward from the cavernous bodies. The capitate part of the urethra is located inside the head of the penis. The inner surface of the male and female urethra is covered with a mucous membrane (transitional epithelium, with the exception of a non-extended area near the external opening, where there is a squamous non-keratinized epithelium).

Main functions of the urethra in a man:

• Passage of urine from the bladder to the outside
• Passage of semen to the outside during ejaculation (ejaculation)
• Participation in the mechanism of urinary retention

The most common diseases of the urethra :

• Urethritis (inflammation of the urethra), often due to sexually transmitted infections (gonococci, chlamydia, ureoplasma, etc.).
• Strictures (narrowing of the lumen) of the urethra in its various parts (due to education: congenital, traumatic and inflammatory origin).
• Anomalies in the development of the urethra: the most common is hypospadias (the location of the external opening of the urethra on the ventral surface of the penis is more proximal than the top of the head).

Seminal vesicles

Seminal vesicles are organs of the male reproductive system. Seminal vesicles (right and left) are located on the back surface of the prostate on the sides of it, posterior to the bladder, anterior to the rectum. The seminal vesicles can be felt with a finger through the anterior wall of the rectum on the sides of the basal prostate. The seminal vesicles are approached by the vas deferens, which, after joining the seminal vesicles, pass into the ejaculatory ducts. The ejaculatory ducts pass through the prostate and open with mouths into the lumen of the prostatic urethra on the sides of the seminal tubercle. The tissue of the seminal vesicle has a cellular structure.

The main functions of the seminal vesicles are:

• In the production of a substantial part of the seminal fluid (up to 75% of the ejaculate volume).
• In the accumulation of seminal fluid components until the moment of ejaculation (there are usually no spermatozoa from the seminal vesicles, and the main receptacle of spermatozoa is the ampullae of the vas deferens).
• In participation in the mechanism of ejaculation (at the time of ejaculation, the contents of the seminal vesicles and vas deferens enter the urethra through the ejaculatory ducts, where they mix with the prostate secretion and are excreted).

Pathology of the seminal vesicles (usually inflammation – vesiculitis) can lead to poor sperm quality and infertility.

Testicular arteries and veins

Testicular veins and arteries are vessels that feed the male gonads – the testicles. On each side there is one testicular artery and one, and more often several, testicular veins. On the right side, the testicular artery departs from the aorta, and the testicular vein flows into the inferior vena cava. On the left side, the testicular artery departs from the left renal artery, and the testicular vein flows into the left renal vein. The testicular vessels pass vertically to the right and left in the retroperitoneal space lateral to the ureters, penetrate into the inguinal canal through the internal inguinal ring, and as part of the spermatic cord, leaving through the external inguinal ring, approach the upper pole of the testicle. As part of the spermatic cord and in the scrotum, the testicular veins form the testicular venous plexus. The outer diameter of the testicular artery is usually 0.5–1.0 mm.
The most common pathology associated with the testicular vessels is varicocele (varicose veins of the testicular venous plexus). Varicocele develops, as a rule, in young people aged 12–15 years more often on the left side. With insufficiency of venous valves and increased pressure in the system of the left testicular vein (anatomical predisposition), due to blood flow in the opposite direction, compensatory expansion of the scrotal veins of varying degrees occurs. Disturbances in the blood supply to the testicle (high venous pressure) and violations of thermoregulation of the scrotum (the testicle is located in the scrotum to work at a temperature below body temperature, and a large mass of blood in the dilated veins violates these conditions) leads to impaired testicular function. Varicocele is one of the common causes of male infertility. Moreover, the longer there is a varicocele, the greater the likelihood of severe violations of sperm quality (sperm concentration and motility) and the degree of hormonal changes.