How do human body diagrams aid in medical education. What are the different types of anatomical illustrations available. How can one create custom body diagrams. What are the licensing considerations for using human body diagrams.

The Importance of Human Body Diagrams in Medical Communication

Human body diagrams serve as invaluable tools in medical education, patient communication, and scientific illustration. These visual representations of the human anatomy allow for clear and concise explanation of complex bodily structures and functions. By providing a standardized template for depicting organs, systems, and conditions, body diagrams facilitate understanding across language barriers and varying levels of medical knowledge.

The Wikimedia Human Body Diagrams project aims to create a comprehensive collection of anatomical illustrations that can be freely used and adapted for various purposes. This initiative not only supports medical education but also promotes open access to scientific knowledge.

Types of Human Body Diagrams Available

The Wikimedia project offers a range of human body diagram types to suit different needs and applications:

• Silhouette templates (male, female, and child)
• Photographic templates
• Drawn outlines
• Vector templates
• Organ-specific illustrations

These diverse options allow users to select the most appropriate base for their specific needs, whether it’s for academic purposes, patient education, or scientific publication.

Silhouette and Photographic Templates

Silhouette templates provide a simple, clean outline of the human form, ideal for highlighting specific areas or systems without distraction. Photographic templates offer a more realistic representation, which can be beneficial when relating diagrams to actual patient anatomy.

Organ-Specific Illustrations

The project includes detailed illustrations of individual organs and systems, such as the gastrointestinal tract, liver, lungs, and brain. These can be used independently or incorporated into full-body diagrams for more focused explanations.

Creating Custom Human Body Diagrams

The Wikimedia project provides several methods for creating custom body diagrams, catering to different skill levels and software availability:

1. Direct derivation from raster images
2. “From scratch” creation using organ templates
3. Vector template manipulation

Direct Derivation from Raster Images

This method involves using pre-made PNG format images that already include commonly used organs. Users can add text and lines using almost any graphics editor, making it the simplest approach for quick customization.

“From Scratch” Creation

For more flexibility, users can paste individual organ images onto “plain” body templates. This method requires a graphics editor capable of handling transparent images to avoid white squares around the organs when pasting.

Vector Template Manipulation

Vector templates offer the greatest potential for customization. Using software like Inkscape, users can create highly detailed and scalable diagrams. This method is ideal for professional-quality illustrations or when significant modifications are needed.

Licensing and Usage Considerations

One of the most significant advantages of the Wikimedia Human Body Diagrams project is its commitment to open access. All images in the collection are released under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

What does this mean for users? The CC0 license essentially waives all copyright and related rights to the work worldwide. As a result, users can:

• Copy the diagrams
• Modify them
• Distribute them
• Use them for commercial purposes

All of this can be done without seeking permission from the original creator. This generous licensing approach ensures that these valuable educational resources remain freely accessible to all.

Contributing to the Human Body Diagrams Project

The Wikimedia project actively encourages contributions from the community to expand and improve its collection of anatomical illustrations. How can interested individuals contribute?

• Donate organ images: The project seeks high-quality, natural-looking images of organs, particularly those that are currently underrepresented in the collection.
• Create derived works: Users are encouraged to create and share new diagrams based on the existing templates.
• Improve existing illustrations: Refinements and updates to current diagrams are always welcome.

When contributing, it’s crucial to ensure that all submitted work is either original or properly licensed for public domain use. This maintains the project’s commitment to free and open access.

Applications of Human Body Diagrams

The versatility of human body diagrams makes them valuable across various fields and applications:

Medical Education

In medical schools and continuing education programs, these diagrams serve as essential teaching aids, helping students visualize complex anatomical structures and relationships.

Patient Education

Healthcare providers use body diagrams to explain conditions, procedures, and treatments to patients in a clear, accessible manner.

Scientific Publications

Researchers and authors incorporate these diagrams into journal articles, textbooks, and presentations to illustrate their findings and concepts.

Public Health Campaigns

Body diagrams are often used in public health materials to educate the general population about health issues, preventive measures, and the effects of various substances on the body.

Challenges and Future Directions

While the Wikimedia Human Body Diagrams project has made significant strides in providing accessible anatomical illustrations, several challenges and opportunities for improvement remain:

Expanding Organ Diversity

The project actively seeks contributions for underrepresented organs and systems, such as the prostate and reproductive organs. Expanding this collection will enhance the project’s utility across various medical specialties.

Improving Accuracy and Detail

As medical knowledge advances, there’s an ongoing need to update and refine existing diagrams to reflect the latest understanding of human anatomy.

Incorporating 3D and Interactive Elements

Future developments could include the creation of three-dimensional models and interactive diagrams, providing a more comprehensive and engaging learning experience.

Multilingual Support

While diagrams can transcend language barriers to some extent, providing multilingual labeling and descriptions could further increase the global accessibility of these resources.

Best Practices for Using Human Body Diagrams

To maximize the effectiveness of human body diagrams in various applications, consider the following best practices:

• Choose the appropriate level of detail for your audience
• Use consistent coloring and labeling conventions
• Provide clear, concise captions or explanations
• Ensure diagrams are culturally sensitive when applicable
• Use high-resolution images for print materials
• Consider accessibility features for digital use (e.g., alt text for screen readers)

By following these guidelines, you can create more effective and inclusive anatomical illustrations that serve their intended purpose, whether for education, communication, or research.

The Impact of Open-Source Anatomical Illustrations

The availability of high-quality, open-source human body diagrams through projects like Wikimedia’s has far-reaching implications:

Democratizing Medical Knowledge

By providing free access to anatomical illustrations, these projects help democratize medical knowledge, making it available to students, educators, and healthcare providers regardless of financial resources.

Fostering Global Collaboration

The open nature of these projects encourages collaboration among medical professionals, artists, and educators worldwide, leading to continual improvement and expansion of available resources.

Supporting Low-Resource Settings

In areas with limited access to expensive medical textbooks or anatomy models, these freely available diagrams can serve as crucial educational tools.

Enabling Innovation

The ability to freely modify and adapt these diagrams supports innovation in medical education, allowing for the creation of new teaching methods and materials.

As the Wikimedia Human Body Diagrams project continues to grow and evolve, it stands as a testament to the power of open collaboration in advancing medical education and communication. By providing a comprehensive, accessible, and adaptable set of anatomical illustrations, this initiative contributes significantly to the global dissemination of medical knowledge.

Human body diagrams – Wikimedia Commons

From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository

Jump to navigationJump to search

Male shadow/silhouette template.

The Wikimedia Human body diagrams is a collection of images whose main purpose is to provide a way of explaining medical conditions and other phenomena.

Contents

• 1 Diagrams
• 2 Human body diagrams
  • 2.1 How to derive an image
    • 2.1.1 Derive directly from raster image with organs
    • 2.1.2 Derive “from scratch”
    • 2.1.3 Derive by vector template
  • 2.2 Examples of derived works
  • 2.3 Licensing
• 3 Donating organs
• 4 Organs in other formats
  • 4.1 Gastrointestinal
  • 4.2 Other
  • 4.3 Gastrointestinal

Diagrams[edit]

Human body diagrams[edit] Main article at: Human body diagrams Template location:Template:Human body diagrams How to derive an image[edit] Derive directly from raster image with organs[edit] The raster (. png format) images below have most commonly used organs already included, and text and lines can be added in almost any graphics editor. This is the easiest method, but does not leave any room for customizing what organs are shown. Adding text and lines: Derive “from scratch”[edit] By this method, body diagrams can be derived by pasting organs into one of the “plain” body images shown below. This method requires a graphics editor that can handle transparent images, in order to avoid white squares around the organs when pasting onto the body image. Pictures of organs are found on the project’s main page. These were originally adapted to fit the male shadow/silhouette. Photograph Shadow/silhouette. Drawing Organs: More organs are found at: Human body diagrams/Organs Intestine Liver Stomach Heart and lungs Rib cage Kidneys Derive by vector template[edit] The Vector templates below can be used to derive images with, for example, Inkscape. This is the method with the greatest potential. See Human body diagrams/Inkscape tutorial for a basic description in how to do this. Female shadow/silhouette. Man shadow/silhouette. Girl shadow/silhouette Female photograph Male photograph Examples of derived works[edit] More examples Side effects of nicotine Surface projections of the organs of the trunk Chemical basis of love Effects of sleep deprivation. Effects of ethanol. Symptoms of fibromyalgia Health effects of some common types of pollution. Licensing[edit]   This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1. 0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of their rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedicationfalsefalse Donating organs[edit] Please leave a message if you have pictures of organs suitable for inclusion, preferably natural-looking ones rather than animated ones, and preferably be frontal view. All kind of organs are appreciated, but the following are especially wanted: Prostate Urinary system (preferably like the digital other version of the displayed, painted one, but with the proportions of the painted version) Reproductive system ( ovaries and testes) You must be prepared to give the image(s) a Public Domain license or equivalent. Think of it as a digital version of HLA-matching used in organ transplantation. Public Domain matches everything and can be used in any other derived work, regardless of its license. Organs in other formats[edit] Click the arrow at the right to view each format respectively. More versions of the organ may be available by clicking on each image. .png Gastrointestinal Complete GI tract Intestine Liver Pancreas Stomach Other Lungs brains Transparent .png look transparent on the body (see Image:Symptoms of AIDS.png as example). Gastrointestinal All images in the source collection are in the Public Domain, meaning that you can make derivatives without asking permission.

Human body diagrams – Wikimedia Commons

From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository

Jump to navigationJump to search

Male shadow/silhouette template.

The Wikimedia Human body diagrams is a collection of images whose main purpose is to provide a way of explaining medical conditions and other phenomena.

Contents

• 1 Diagrams
• 2 Human body diagrams
  • 2.1 How to derive an image
    • 2.1.1 Derive directly from raster image with organs
    • 2.1.2 Derive “from scratch”
    • 2.1.3 Derive by vector template
  • 2.2 Examples of derived works
  • 2.3 Licensing
• 3 Donating organs
• 4 Organs in other formats
  • 4.1 Gastrointestinal
  • 4.2 Other
  • 4.3 Gastrointestinal

Diagrams[edit]

Human body diagrams[edit] Main article at: Human body diagrams Template location:Template:Human body diagrams How to derive an image[edit] Derive directly from raster image with organs[edit] The raster (.png format) images below have most commonly used organs already included, and text and lines can be added in almost any graphics editor. This is the easiest method, but does not leave any room for customizing what organs are shown. Adding text and lines: Derive “from scratch”[edit] By this method, body diagrams can be derived by pasting organs into one of the “plain” body images shown below. This method requires a graphics editor that can handle transparent images, in order to avoid white squares around the organs when pasting onto the body image. Pictures of organs are found on the project’s main page. These were originally adapted to fit the male shadow/silhouette. Photograph Shadow/silhouette. Drawing Organs: More organs are found at: Human body diagrams/Organs Intestine Liver Stomach Heart and lungs Rib cage Kidneys Derive by vector template[edit] The Vector templates below can be used to derive images with, for example, Inkscape. This is the method with the greatest potential. See Human body diagrams/Inkscape tutorial for a basic description in how to do this. Female shadow/silhouette. Man shadow/silhouette. Girl shadow/silhouette Female photograph Male photograph Examples of derived works[edit] More examples Side effects of nicotine Surface projections of the organs of the trunk Chemical basis of love Effects of sleep deprivation. Effects of ethanol. Symptoms of fibromyalgia Health effects of some common types of pollution. Licensing[edit]   This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1. 0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of their rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedicationfalsefalse Donating organs[edit] Please leave a message if you have pictures of organs suitable for inclusion, preferably natural-looking ones rather than animated ones, and preferably be frontal view. All kind of organs are appreciated, but the following are especially wanted: Prostate Urinary system (preferably like the digital other version of the displayed, painted one, but with the proportions of the painted version) Reproductive system ( ovaries and testes) You must be prepared to give the image(s) a Public Domain license or equivalent. Think of it as a digital version of HLA-matching used in organ transplantation. Public Domain matches everything and can be used in any other derived work, regardless of its license. Organs in other formats[edit] Click the arrow at the right to view each format respectively. More versions of the organ may be available by clicking on each image. .png Gastrointestinal Complete GI tract Intestine Liver Pancreas Stomach Other Lungs brains Transparent .png look transparent on the body (see Image:Symptoms of AIDS.png as example). Gastrointestinal All images in the source collection are in the Public Domain, meaning that you can make derivatives without asking permission.

Internal structure of human organs: basic structures and functions

Learn all about the internal structure of the main human organs: heart, lungs, liver, kidneys and others. Understand how they function, what parts they have, and how they relate to each other. All information on our website.

The human body is a complex system, which consists of a set of organs and tissues, each of which performs its own unique function. In order to understand how our body works, it is necessary to know the basic structures and functions of each organ.

The human body consists of organs and tissues, each of which has its own unique internal structure. The study of this structure allows you to understand what functions the organs perform and how they are related to each other.

It is important to take into account that each organ affects the work of other organs and the whole organism as a whole. Therefore, knowledge about the internal structure of organs will allow you to more fully understand the processes occurring in the body and make more informed decisions regarding your health.

The heart is the main human circulatory organ that provides continuous blood flow to all organs and tissues of the body. It consists of four cavities: the right and left atria and the right and left ventricles. The heart contracts and relaxes in a certain rhythm, which ensures normal blood flow.

Arteries are tubular structures that carry blood from the heart to organs and tissues. There are muscle cells in the walls of arteries that control blood pressure and regulate blood flow in every organ and tissue.

Veins are tubular structures that carry blood from tissues and organs back to the heart. They have valves that prevent the backflow of blood and ensure that it only flows in one direction.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that connect arteries and veins. They provide the exchange of substances between the blood and cells of the body, and also participate in the regulation of heat transfer in the body.

The human respiratory system consists of many organs: the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The nasal cavity performs the function of filtering, moistening and warming the inhaled air, where the mucous membrane contains many small hairs – keels, which throw pollution out. The larynx, located at the top of the throat, connects the nasal cavity and the trachea. The trachea is a tube that connects the larynx and bronchi and then splits into two separate bronchi, each leading to a lung.

The main function of the respiratory system is to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide. Breathing occurs automatically, without effort and volitional control. During inhalation, the ribs expand and the diaphragm contracts and descends, increasing the total volumetric capacity of the chest. Air containing oxygen passes through the nose or mouth, then through the larynx and trachea, and finally enters the lungs through the bronchi. In the lungs, oxygen passes into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide is excreted from the body.

In fact, breathing is an integral part of life. The function of the respiratory system not only supplies oxygen to the body, but also purifies its blood by removing decay products and waste gases. In addition, breathing is an important part of our physical health, increasing our stamina and helping us cope with stress. To maintain a healthy respiratory system, it is necessary to maintain a healthy lifestyle, including regular outdoor walks, exercise, and not smoking.

The digestive system is one of the most important systems of the body, which performs a number of important functions. Its main task is to process the food that we eat into elements that our body can absorb and use. In addition, it also controls the excretion of waste products and toxins from the body.

The digestive system consists of several parts, each of which performs its specific function. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus.

There are four main processes in the human body during digestion: mechanical processing, chemical processing, absorption of nutrients and removal of indigestible residues.

Q&A:

What are the main structures that make the digestive system work?

The main structures that ensure the functioning of the digestive system are the stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines and anus. They perform a variety of functions, from processing food and excreting bile to disposing of body waste.

What structures make up the nervous system and how do they work?

The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and synapses. It is responsible for the transmission of information between different parts of the body and ensures the coordination of movements and the regulation of internal organs. Nerve impulses are transmitted through synapses, the points of contact between nerve cells.

What structures form the blood and what is their role in the body?

Blood is formed in the bone marrow and consists of red and white blood cells, platelets and plasma. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues, white blood cells protect the body from bacteria and viruses, and platelets are involved in blood clotting. Plasma contains water, nutrients, and other important compounds such as antibodies.

How are the lungs arranged and what role do they play in breathing?

The lungs are made up of three main structures: bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. They provide oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide. When you inhale, oxygen passes through the bronchi and bronchioles to the alveoli, where it is absorbed into the blood. When exhaling, carbon dioxide is removed from the air alveoli and exhaled through the nose or mouth.

What structures make up the genitourinary system and how do they work?

The genitourinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. It is responsible for the elimination of body waste and the regulation of water and electrolyte balance. The kidneys filter the blood, removing excess water and metabolites from the blood, which are then excreted through the urinary tract.

What are the main structures of the skin and what role do they play?

Skin consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous adipose tissue. It performs protective, regulatory and sensitive functions. The epidermis contains keratin, which prevents deformation and protects the skin from harmful effects. The dermis contains collagen, which improves the elasticity and firmness of the skin. Subcutaneous adipose tissue contains fat, which moisturizes the skin and provides thermal insulation.

What is the role of bones in the body and how are they arranged?

Bones make up the skeleton and perform several functions, such as maintaining the shape and protection of internal organs, providing movement and participating in calcium metabolism. Bones consist of bone marrow, epiphyses and diaphyses. The bone marrow produces blood, the epiphyses provide limb movement, and the diaphysis provides shape maintenance.

How is the heart arranged and how does it work?

The heart consists of four chambers: the right atrium and ventricle, the left atrium and ventricle. It is responsible for the circulation of blood throughout the body. Blood from the right atrium enters the right ventricle, then is expelled to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and returns to the left atrium. Then the blood enters the left ventricle and then to all other parts of the body.

Internal structure of the urinary system

Kidneys

The kidneys are the main organ of the urinary system, filtering the blood and removing its metabolic products from the body. They contain several structural units – nephrons, which provide the function of the organ.

Nephron is a complex system of tubules and capillaries that are involved in the blood filtration process. Capillaries located in the nephrons allow the transfer of filtered products to the tubules, which then pass them to the ureter.

Ureters, bladder, urethra

Ureters are the tubes that connect the nephrons to the bladder. The bladder is an organ that temporarily stores urine before it is expelled from the body through the urethra.

The urethra is the conduit that passes through the prostate gland in men and leads from the bladder to the outside of the body. In women, the length of the urethra is shorter, and its opening is closer to the anus.

A large volume of urine in the bladder causes a feeling of urination, which in turn signals the urethra to contract and expel urine from the body.

Functioning of the urinary system

Blood enters the kidneys through an artery located near the spinal column. In the nephrons, blood passes through a separate system of capillaries that filter waste products and water from the blood.

The filtered fluid, called primary urine, travels through the ureters to the bladder, where it is temporarily stored. The urethra removes urine from the bladder and the body as a whole.

The urinary system is important for clearing the blood of products that can only be excreted through urine, as well as for controlling fluid levels in the body.

Nervous system

Structure of the nervous system

The nervous system is a complex mechanism that is responsible for the transmission of signals in the body. It consists of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves that are located outside the central nervous system. Together they ensure the transfer of information between organs and tissues.

Functions of the nervous system

The nervous system has a number of functions, including detecting and responding to changes in the body’s internal and external environment. In addition, it controls motor activity, coordination of movements, the state of the psyche, as well as many other processes in the body. The nervous system is also responsible for processing information that comes from the senses.

Nervous system disorders

Nervous system disorders can lead to various diseases such as migraine, Parkinson’s disease, depression and epilepsy. These diseases can have various causes, including heredity, trauma, or system malfunction. Treatment for such conditions may include medications, therapeutic exercises, and other methods.

Endocrine system: the most important system in our body

Description

The endocrine system, also called the internal excretory system, is one of the most important systems in our body. It includes hormones, glands, and other components that help control bodily functions. Hormones released by the glands include adrenaline, thyroid hormones, and insulin.

Functions

The main function of the endocrine system is to regulate the functioning of various organs and tissues in the body. It is also responsible for controlling the growth, development, and function of the gonads, as well as regulating blood glucose levels. In addition, the endocrine system helps maintain the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body.

Glands

Glands are the main components of the endocrine system. They are located in various parts of the body and are responsible for the production and release of hormones into the blood. Some of the most important glands include the thyroid, pancreas, and pituitary.

Malfunctions and Disorders

If the endocrine system does not function properly, it can lead to various disorders such as diabetes, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. A malfunctioning endocrine system can also lead to elevated hormone levels, which can lead to various illnesses and diseases, such as breast or prostate cancer.

Conclusion

The endocrine system plays an important role in maintaining the normal functioning of our body. The glands secrete the most important hormones that help regulate the functioning of organs and tissues, and also affect the growth and development of the body. However, if the system stops functioning properly, it can lead to serious disorders that can lead to health complications.

Muscular system

Basic structures

The muscular system consists of skeletal muscles that are attached to the bone and provide movement of the body, smooth muscles that are located in organs and act automatically, and the cardiac muscle that ensures the rhythmic work of the heart.

Skeletal muscles are made up of muscle fibers connected together through tendons and ligaments. Each muscle fiber contains sarcomeres, microscopic structures that are responsible for muscle contraction.

Smooth muscles do not have such an obvious structure as skeletal ones, and can contract autonomously, without the participation of volitional mechanisms. Well developed in the digestive, respiratory and excretory systems.

Functions

The main function of the muscular system is to move the body. Skeletal muscles can contract and stretch, resulting in movement of the limbs and torso. Smooth muscles are involved in the work of the organs of internal systems, their contraction carries out peristalsis, respiration, secretion of glands, and much more.

The muscular system is also involved in maintaining body temperature. Muscles generate heat, which helps keep the body’s core temperature stable.

In addition, the musculoskeletal system ensures the maintenance of posture and the basic shape of the body, and is also involved in the defense of the body, for example, through the facial muscles, which can express emotions.

1. Summary:
2. The muscular system consists of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.
3. Skeletal muscles provide movement of the body, smooth muscles work in the organs of internal systems.
4. The muscular system is involved in maintaining body temperature, maintaining posture and protecting the body.

Skeletal system

Basic structures

The human skeletal system consists of bones, ligaments and muscles. Bones have different shapes and perform different functions. They provide support and protection for the internal organs, and are also involved in the movement and creation of blood.

Ligaments are connective tissues that hold bones together and keep them stable. Muscles are connective tissues that provide movement to bones.

Basic functions

The skeletal system performs several basic functions. It provides support and protection to internal organs such as the heart, lungs and diaphragm. Bones are also involved in the formation of blood in the bone marrow.

The skeletal system also provides movement for the body. Muscles, connecting with bones, create a force that moves the skeleton. The bones are the immediate support points for the muscles and allow them to function effectively.

In addition, the skeletal system is involved in metabolism. Bones contain calcium, which acts as a reserve of calcium in the body.

Diseases of the skeletal system

• Osteoporosis is a disease in which the bones become more fragile and prone to fracture.
• Arthritis is a disease in which inflammation of the tissues of the joints leads to pain and limited movement.

Skeletal disease prevention includes proper nutrition, exercise, and regular medical check-ups to identify risks and start treatment on time.

Human immune system

Basic structures and functions

The immune system is a complex system of organs, tissues and cells that protects the body from infection and disease. It consists of two main parts: the adaptive and innate immune systems.

The innate immune system is the body’s first line of defense against viruses, bacteria and other pathogens. This system includes the skin, mucous membranes, and immune cells such as neutrophils and natural killers.

The adaptive immune system is a more complex system that develops in response to infections. It includes the protein immunoglobulin, which attacks and destroys pathogens. In addition, the adaptive immune system has a memory and is able to quickly recognize and destroy repeated invasions of the same pathogen into the body.

The immune system plays a very important role in the human body, keeping it healthy and protecting it from many diseases. However, such a complex system can often malfunction, leading to autoimmune diseases, allergic reactions, and other problems.

• Innate immune system
  • Skin and mucous membranes
  • Neutrophils and natural killers
• Adaptive immune system
  • Immunoglobulin protein

  9 0155 Memory and rapid recognition of pathogens

Internal structure of human organs: Skin and its functions

Basic structures of the skin

The skin is one of the largest organs in our body and performs many important functions. It consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous adipose tissue. The epidermis, the top layer of the skin, is made up of many cells that produce keratin, the protein material that makes skin tough and resistant. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains many vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and sweat glands. Subcutaneous adipose tissue contains fat cells that provide insulation and heat retention in the body.

Functions of the skin

The skin performs many important functions, including protection from external influences, regulation of body temperature, elimination of harmful substances, participation in the metabolism and synthesis of vitamin D. The skin is also a sensory organ, through which a person receives information about temperature, pressure, pain, and other environmental stimuli.

Conclusion

The skin is a very important organ that performs many functions and plays an important role in maintaining the life of the body. Keep it in good condition, take care of hygiene and avoid harmful effects such as burns, mechanical damage and overheating.

Eyes and their structure

Eye structure

The eye is an organ of vision, which consists of several elements. The outermost part of the eye is the cornea, which transmits light rays into the eye.

The light rays then pass through the pupil, which is the opening in the iris. The iris contains muscles that allow the size of the pupil to change depending on the brightness of the environment.

Light rays travel further through the lens, which also changes its shape to focus the image on the retina. The retina is made up of many light-sensitive cells that transmit signals to the brain via the optic nerve.

Functions of the eye

The main function of the eye is to process light rays and transmit signals to the brain for further processing. The eyes also allow you to judge the depth and distance of objects, which is important in everyday life.

In addition, the eyes are an organ that can express emotions and communicate with people around. For example, the facial muscles around the eye allow you to express joy, anger or surprise.

Diseases of the eye

• Cataract is a disease in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy and vision is impaired;
• Glaucoma is a disease characterized by increased intraocular pressure and damage to the optic nerve;
• Macular degeneration is a disease that is associated with visual impairment in the central part of the retina, responsible for the difference in colors and image clarity.

Ear and structure

Outer ear

The ear consists of three main parts: outer, middle and inner. The outer part of the ear is the ear shell, which we used to call the auricle. This part of the ear protects the inner ear from external damage and helps collect sound waves.

Middle part of the ear

The middle part of the ear lies behind the auricle and consists of the tympanic membrane, ossicles and eustachian tube. The tympanic membrane is the boundary between the outer and middle ear, and the auditory bones are the small bones that transmit sound waves from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.

Inner part of the ear

Inner part of the ear lies behind the middle part and contains the hearing aid and the semicircular canals. The hearing aid consists of the cochlea and the coclear nerve, which convert sound waves into nerve impulses that are then transmitted to the brain. The semicircular canals are responsible for balance and coordination.

Conclusion

The structure of the ear is a complex and amazing system that allows us to hear and coordinate our movement. Understanding this system helps us take better care of our hearing and improve our lives in general.

The internal structure of the lips and their functions

The structure of the lips

Lips are folds of skin, subcutaneous fat, muscle fibers, mucous membranes and a special venous arrangement – capillary bulbs.

The muscular layer consists of two pairs of labial muscles, which differ in the direction of the fibers. The anterior labial muscle is responsible for lifting the upper lip and supralabial sugar bone, the occipital muscle makes the movement of the lips downward and upward. Inside the lips there is a system of sheaths in the middle of the lip, at the edges there are connective tissue plates.

Functions of the lips

Lips play an important role in many processes of our life. Through lips we eat, communicate, kiss, breathe, and also protect ourselves from environmental influences. Lips help a person become more expressive in their emotions, facial expressions and speech. Their structure ensures the stability of the mouth in different positions, allowing literally dozens of lip gestures to be performed.

The mucous membrane of the lips has a large number of specialized glands that secrete moisture that moisturizes the lips and protects them from drying out.

Structure of teeth

Teeth are hard structures made up of various tissues: enamel, dentin, pulp and cementum. They are root and crown shaped and differ in shape, size and function.

Enamel is a hard, transparent tissue that covers the outer surface of the tooth. It is composed of hydroxyapatite crystals and provides tooth strength and protection from damage.

Dentin is the hard tissue that forms the bulk of the tooth. It consists of cones connected by tubes and provides strength to the tooth and support to the enamel.

The pulp is the soft tissue inside the tooth containing blood vessels and nerve endings. It provides blood circulation and tooth sensitivity.

Cementum is a hard tissue that covers the root of the tooth and adheres to the toothbrush. It consists of collagen fibers and provides protection against corrosion and deformation.

Teeth have different shapes and functions depending on their location in the mouth. For example, incisors are used to cut food, canines are used to snatch and grab, and molars are used to chew and grind food.

The vocal cords and their functions

The vocal cords are small muscles in the throat that play an important role in sound production. They are located in the throat and fluctuate with the manifestation of the voice. Their size, shape and intensity affect how sound is produced and received.

The primary function of the vocal cords is to produce sound. Voice is produced when the vocal cords vibrate as air is exhaled from the lungs and vibrate against each other. It is extremely important that the vocal cords are healthy and without damage, as some conditions can lead to sound disturbance and voice failure.

The vocal cords play a role in a wide range of all types of communication, including speech, singing, and sound production for acting and scoring work. They can be trained to improve tone, volume, and pitch, making good vocalization and other related activities possible.

It makes sense to take care of the vocal cords and prevent potential damage whenever possible. It is recommended to drink enough water and avoid smoking, as this can lead to a decrease in the vocal cords and cause smog and other irritations.

Vessels and their significant role in the body

Arteries

Arteries are vessels that carry blood from the heart to various organs and tissues of our body. They have a unique structure with a significant amount of muscle layers and elastic fibers to maintain blood flow. Large arteries have thick walls due to high pressure, while small arteries are thinner.

If the artery narrows, there is a problem in the passage of blood, which can lead to serious diseases such as tonsillitis or myocardial infarction. Therefore, it is important to monitor the health of the arteries.

Veins

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are characterized by thinner walls and less developed muscle layers, so blood moves more slowly compared to arteries.

The venous system includes a less precise system of anchors that allow blood to be retained in the upper body. The venous system has valves that prevent backflow of blood. Certain diseases, such as varicose veins, can make it difficult for the normal flow of blood in the veins, which can lead to more serious conditions.

Capillaries

Capillaries are the thinnest vessels in the human body. They connect the arterial and venous systems, allowing blood to enter various tissues and organs. Capillaries are blood vessels that control the distribution of oxygen and nutrients. They are also responsible for transporting carbon dioxide and waste products from the body. Capillaries are characterized by very thin walls, allowing blood to flow efficiently through them.

Thus, vessels play an important role in the body, carrying blood and transporting nutrients and oxygen to cells and tissues. They also help to transport waste and exhaust carbon dioxide necessary for removal in the opposite direction. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the health of blood vessels, which contributes to the proper functioning of our body as a whole.

Pulmonary ventilation and its role in the functioning of the respiratory system

Pulmonary ventilation is a process associated with the exchange of gases between the lungs and the atmosphere. This is the most important process that ensures the supply of oxygen to the body and the utilization of carbon dioxide, which is formed in the process of metabolism. The air that enters the lungs during inhalation contains about 21% oxygen. When exhaling, a person releases about 16% of the oxygen that the body needs.

The regulation of pulmonary ventilation occurs through the activity of the nervous system, as well as humoral regulation, when certain hormones in the blood regulate breathing. It is important to note that although pulmonary ventilation occurs automatically, it can also be controlled by consciousness, for example, during yoga and meditation.

Alveoli, microscopic vesicles located at the end of the bronchial tree, play an important role in the process of respiration. It is in them that gas exchange occurs between the lungs and the blood. From the alveoli, the blood receives oxygen and dumps excess carbon dioxide, which is released through the lungs into the environment during exhalation.

In addition, it is worth noting that pulmonary ventilation plays an important role in the functioning of not only the respiratory system, but also in the functioning of the body in general. A sufficient level of oxygen is necessary not only for the vital activity of the lungs, but also for other body systems, such as the cardiovascular system and the brain.

Mirror organs. Alternative Anatomy / Sudo Null IT News

What if I told you your heart might be on the right side? This is possible with the transposition of the internal organs, a rare anomaly in the development of the human body, which manifests itself in a mirror arrangement of the internal organs in relation to their normal anatomical position.

Transposition of the internal organs of the chest.

With this anomaly, in addition to the right-sided heart, your stomach may be on the right and the liver on the left, and the left and right lungs may be reversed. But in addition to moving the organs of the chest and abdominal cavity to the opposite side of the body, there are also options when a mirror image of a typical left or right anatomical configuration of organs occurs. In this article, I will talk about a possible alternative anatomy of our body.

In order to explain in more detail and clearly the possible anomalies in the location and anatomy of the internal organs, let’s turn to the “classical” version of human anatomy.

Habitual arrangement of organs (Situs solitus)

Habitual arrangement of internal organs.

Like all vertebrates, in humans during embryogenesis (development and formation of the human embryo) occurring inside the mother’s womb, an anatomically correct asymmetry of the position of the internal organs of the chest and abdominal cavity relative to the sagittal plane is formed. So the apex of the heart and the aorta, the bilobular lung (consisting of the upper and lower lobes), the stomach and spleen are on the left relative to the sagittal plane, and the vena cava of the heart, most of the liver and the three-lobed lung (consisting of the upper, middle and lower lobes) are on the right.

Planes of the human body

This arrangement of internal organs is called situs solitus (from Latin solitus – habitual) and is found in approximately 99.99% of the human population, ensuring optimal functioning of the human body.

It is exceptionally rare that a genetic failure occurs in the process of embryogenesis, as a result of which various anomalies of the “classical” arrangement of internal organs are formed.

Anomalies in the location of organs

Currently, the classification of alternative positions of the internal organs in the chest and abdominal cavities remains without a general consensus, and there is general agreement in the medical community regarding the main two phenotypic subgroups of organ position anomalies:

1. Situs inversus (from lat . inversus – inverted) – a complete or partial change in the correct position of the organs.

2. Situs ambiguus or heterotaxy (from Greek heteros – other, different and taxis – location) – a mirror image of a typical left or right anatomical configuration of organs.

1. Situs Inversus

According to the classification, situs inversus is subdivided into two variants of the location of internal organs in the chest and abdominal cavities situs inversus totalis and levocardia .

1.1. Situs inversus totalis or dextrocardia

Proper arrangement of organs (left). Dextrocardia (right).

A complete change in the standard arrangement of organs compared to the norm, in which the heart is in a mirror position in the right-sided position (dextrocardia) , and the abdominal organs are also turned to the right. This variant of the anatomical position is called situs inversus totalis .

The prevalence of this disease varies from 1 in 6000 to 1 in 33 000 live births. The condition itself is not associated with adverse medical complications for a person, since the full mirror image of organs, blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels, relative to the sagittal plane, does not violate their morphology and positional relationships. People from situs inversus totalis can live a perfectly healthy life without knowing about their pathology. Problems may arise only in the case of organ transplantation/donation or atypical lateralization of symptoms (for example, appendicitis, which is correctly localized on the right).

Anatomical preparation of a mummy with situs inversus totalis and dextrocardia preserved by the tanning technique. Stored in the Museum of Pathological Anatomy of the University of Padua.

1.

2. Levocardia

Proper arrangement of organs (left). Levocardia (right).

The prevalence of the defect is 1 in 2,000,000 live births. With this pathology, the heart is in its usual position (levocardia) , while other organs are in the opposite position. Isolated levocardia is often associated with severe malformations of the cardiovascular system due to the unusual position of the heart compared to other organs and their connections.

2. Situs ambiguus or heterotaxy

This anomaly manifests itself as a complete loss of left-right orientation in the arrangement of organs along the vertical axis. In heterotaxy syndrome, the structure of the internal organs changes, in which there is a mirror image of the typical left or right anatomical configuration of the organs, especially the heart, including the attachment of large blood vessels. The prevalence of heterotaxy is estimated to be between 1 in 8,000 and 1 in 12,000 live births.

In contrast to the normal position of the internal organs, heterotaxy is usually associated with complex functional potentially fatal disorders in anatomical structures, with the main morbidity and mortality due to complex malformations of the cardiovascular system.

Since heterotaxy includes the whole range of possible mutual arrangements of internal organs and violation of their symmetry, there is no single description of all cases. For ease of diagnosis, all cases are usually subdivided into two general types of heterotaxy called isomerism, although their precise morphology and resulting anomalies vary from patient to patient.

2.1 Polysplenia or left isomerism

Proper arrangement of organs (left). Left isomerism (right).

With left-sided isomerism both sides of the body are left. Both lungs have two lobes, the branching of the bronchi on both sides is the same, the lobes of the liver are symmetrical and located on both sides. Both atrial cavities of the heart are morphologically left. The spleen in left isomerism consists of many small and poorly functioning parts.

Schematic representation of the atrial appendages. Usual: diagram of the normal arrangement of the atrial appendages. Left isomerism: scheme of isomerism of the left atrial appendages. Photo: isomerism of the left atrial appendages. Characteristic of the left atrium, a smooth vestibule (Smooth vestibules) is located on both sides.

2.2. Asplenia or right isomerism

Correct arrangement of organs (left). Right isomerism (right).

With right-sided isomerism both sides of the body are right. Both lungs have three lobes, the branching of the bronchi on both sides is the same, the lobes of the liver are symmetrical and located on both sides. Intestinal rotation not completed. Both atria are morphologically right, each of them has a sinus node. Severe and sometimes life-threatening heart defects are noted with right isomerism. The spleen is often absent.

Schematic representation of the atrial appendages. Usual: diagram of the normal arrangement of the atrial appendages. Right isomerism: scheme of right atrial adnexal isomerism. Photo: isomerism of the right atrial appendages. Characteristic of the right atrium, the pectinate muscles are located on both sides.

Pathogenesis

The ZIC3 gene and its location on the X chromosome.

Scientists attribute anomalies in the arrangement of organs to the NODAL gene, which is responsible in the early stages of human development for the formation of the mesoderm and endoderm, and the subsequent organization of left-right axial structures. The researchers also consider the relationship between the occurrence of heterotaxy and the mutation of the ZIC3 gene. It is impossible to unambiguously say which specific mutation causes anomalies in the arrangement of organs, therefore, work on the study of clear genetic mechanisms of transposition of internal organs is under study.

Cilia on the cells of the embryonic node.

But it is unequivocally known that with this pathology, the synthesis of structural proteins of flagella and cilia – cilia (microscopic cilia on the surface of cells) is disrupted.

Rotation mechanism with cilia.

Normally, during the development of the embryo, all visceral tissues are laid along the midline of the body, then, as the embryo grows, rotation to the right occurs due to the cilia, which determine the formation of typical asymmetry of organs. In the case of pathology, the patient’s ciliary apparatus is motionless or fluctuates asynchronously, due to which the rotation of the internal organs is not properly performed, which leads to their complete or partial reverse location.

Due to a defect in the cilia, severe pathologies occur in the human body. One of them is the Sievert-Kartagener syndrome, in which a person experiences problems with the nasopharynx and breathing. In a quarter of patients with the syndrome, a mirror arrangement of internal organs, or situs inversus, is detected.

Normal ciliated epithelium (A) and with Kartagener’s syndrome (B).

It is worth saying that the etiological factors of the pathology have not been precisely established. Genetic diagnostics have shown that a large percentage of situs inversus is also associated with HAND, Pitxz, ACVR2 gene mutations occurring in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. Transposition is facilitated by teratogenic effects on the developing embryo: when smoking and drinking alcohol by a pregnant woman, exposure to radiation and carcinogens. There is a theory about the “absorption” of the twin embryo as the cause of the transposition.

Speculum speculum symptoms

Transposition of the internal organs is usually detected incidentally, since this disorder is of little concern to patients. Only in the case of a combination of transposition of internal organs with developmental anomalies in humans, pathological symptoms can appear in early childhood. Basically, there are signs of cardiovascular disorders: shortness of breath during physical exertion, pallor or cyanosis of the skin, fingers like “drumsticks” and nails in the form of “watch glasses”. Often, symptoms are accompanied by poor physical development, growth retardation.

Symptom of “drumsticks”.

Most people with organ transposition have information about the pathology entered in the medical record, which describes in detail the anomaly in the position of the internal organs. Some patients get tattoos on their body indicating variations in the location of the organs.

In the case of an undiagnosed anomaly, transposition can be detected by instrumental studies – X-ray of the chest and abdomen, ultrasound of the internal organs, CT and MRI.

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Literary sources

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2. Gaibova M.A., Medvedeva A.A. Transposition of internal organs // Youth, science, medicine. — 2019.

3. Gerasimov V.N., Briginevich V.E., Borisov A.V. National projects: challenges and solutions. Case of transposition of internal organs// Proceedings of the 55th interregional scientific and practical conference. — 2020.

4. Alberto Z., Fabio Z., Maurizio R. B., Carla F., Giuliano S., Roberto S., Gaetano T. Situs inversus with dextrocardia in a mummy case//Cardiovascular Pathology.