What are the different types of seizures. How are seizures diagnosed and treated. What medical terms are associated with epilepsy. What surgical procedures are available for epilepsy treatment. How does diet affect seizure management.

Types of Seizures: A Detailed Overview

Understanding the various types of seizures is crucial for proper diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy. Let’s explore some of the most common seizure types:

Absence Seizures

Absence seizures, also known as petit mal seizures, are characterized by brief periods of staring and loss of awareness. These seizures typically last between 2-20 seconds and are most common in children. What makes absence seizures unique? They often go unnoticed due to their subtle nature, with the person appearing to simply be daydreaming.

Atonic Seizures

Atonic seizures involve a sudden loss of muscle tone, often causing the person to drop objects or fall unexpectedly. How do atonic seizures differ from other types? Unlike tonic seizures where muscles stiffen, atonic seizures cause muscles to suddenly relax, leading to what are sometimes called “drop attacks.”

Clonic Seizures

Clonic seizures are characterized by rhythmic jerking movements that affect the entire body. These seizures can be particularly distressing for observers due to their dramatic appearance. What causes the jerking movements in clonic seizures? The rhythmic contractions are a result of rapidly alternating muscle contraction and relaxation.

Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Formerly known as grand mal seizures, tonic-clonic seizures are perhaps the most well-known type of seizure. They involve a loss of consciousness, body stiffening (tonic phase), followed by jerking movements (clonic phase). How long do tonic-clonic seizures typically last? While alarming, most tonic-clonic seizures last only 1-3 minutes, though they may leave the person feeling exhausted for hours afterward.

Diagnostic Procedures for Epilepsy

Accurate diagnosis of epilepsy and seizure disorders requires a combination of clinical observation and advanced medical technology. Here are some of the key diagnostic tools used by neurologists:

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An EEG is a non-invasive test that measures the electrical activity in the brain. How does an EEG work? Electrodes placed on the scalp record the brain’s electrical signals, which can reveal abnormal patterns associated with epilepsy.

Video EEG Monitoring

Video EEG monitoring combines continuous EEG recording with video observation of the patient. This technique is particularly useful for capturing seizures as they occur, allowing doctors to correlate brain activity with physical symptoms. How long does video EEG monitoring typically last? Monitoring can range from a few hours to several days, depending on the frequency of seizures and the information needed.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI scans provide detailed images of the brain’s structure, helping to identify any abnormalities that might be causing seizures. What advantages does MRI have over CT scans for epilepsy diagnosis? MRI offers higher resolution images and better soft tissue contrast, making it more effective at detecting subtle brain abnormalities that might be missed on a CT scan.

Treatment Options for Epilepsy

Managing epilepsy often requires a multi-faceted approach. Let’s explore some of the primary treatment options available:

Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs)

Anti-epileptic drugs, also known as anticonvulsants, are the mainstay of epilepsy treatment. These medications work by altering brain chemistry to reduce the likelihood of seizures. How many different types of AEDs are available? There are over 20 different AEDs currently on the market, each with its own mechanism of action and side effect profile.

Epilepsy Surgery

For some patients with drug-resistant epilepsy, surgery may be an option. Surgical procedures aim to remove or isolate the part of the brain responsible for seizures. What factors determine if someone is a good candidate for epilepsy surgery? Candidates typically have seizures originating from a single, identifiable area of the brain that can be safely removed without causing significant neurological deficits.

• Resective surgery: Removal of the seizure-causing area of the brain
• Corpus callosotomy: Cutting the connection between brain hemispheres
• Hemispherectomy: Removal of portions of one brain hemisphere

Ketogenic Diet

The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet that has shown effectiveness in controlling seizures, particularly in children with drug-resistant epilepsy. How does the ketogenic diet work to reduce seizures? The exact mechanism is not fully understood, but it’s believed that the diet alters brain metabolism and neurotransmitter activity in a way that increases seizure threshold.

Epilepsy Syndromes and Special Considerations

Epilepsy is not a single condition but encompasses a variety of syndromes and special cases. Understanding these can help in providing more targeted treatment:

Benign Focal Epilepsy of Childhood

This syndrome, characterized by focal aware seizures during sleep, is relatively common in children. What makes this syndrome “benign”? The term benign is used because these seizures are typically easily controlled with medication and often resolve on their own by puberty.

Catamenial Epilepsy

Catamenial epilepsy refers to the tendency for some women with epilepsy to experience increased seizure frequency around the time of menstruation. What causes this cyclical pattern of seizures? Hormonal fluctuations, particularly changes in estrogen and progesterone levels, are thought to influence seizure threshold in susceptible individuals.

Febrile Seizures

Febrile seizures are convulsions that occur in young children in association with fever. Are febrile seizures a sign of epilepsy? While alarming, most febrile seizures are not indicative of epilepsy and do not require long-term treatment. However, they can increase the risk of developing epilepsy later in life.

Advanced Concepts in Epileptology

As our understanding of epilepsy deepens, new concepts and terminologies emerge. Let’s explore some of these advanced ideas:

Epileptogenic Zone

The epileptogenic zone refers to the area of the brain responsible for generating seizures. How is the epileptogenic zone identified? A combination of EEG, neuroimaging, and sometimes invasive monitoring is used to pinpoint this critical area, especially when considering surgical treatment.

Epilepsia Partialis Continua (EPC)

EPC is a rare form of focal status epilepticus characterized by continuous or recurrent focal motor seizures. What distinguishes EPC from other types of seizures? The key feature of EPC is its persistence, with seizure activity continuing for hours, days, or even weeks without full recovery between episodes.

Assistive Technologies and Accommodations for Epilepsy

Living with epilepsy often requires adaptations to ensure safety and improve quality of life. Let’s look at some of the technologies and accommodations available:

Seizure Alert Devices

These wearable devices can detect seizure activity and alert caregivers or emergency services. How do seizure alert devices work? They typically use a combination of motion sensors, heart rate monitors, and skin conductance sensors to detect the physiological changes associated with seizures.

Workplace Accommodations

Employers are required to provide reasonable accommodations for employees with epilepsy. What types of accommodations might be helpful for someone with epilepsy in the workplace?

• Flexible work schedules to accommodate medical appointments
• Breaks to take medication
• Adjustments to work environment to reduce seizure triggers (e.g., modifying lighting)
• Provision of a safe space to rest following a seizure

Future Directions in Epilepsy Research and Treatment

The field of epileptology is constantly evolving, with new research opening up exciting possibilities for diagnosis and treatment. What are some of the most promising areas of epilepsy research?

Neurostimulation Therapies

Neurostimulation involves using electrical impulses to modulate brain activity and reduce seizures. What types of neurostimulation are currently being used or researched for epilepsy treatment?

• Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS): Already approved and in use
• Responsive Neurostimulation (RNS): A “brain pacemaker” that detects and responds to seizure activity
• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Targeting specific brain structures to modulate seizure networks

Precision Medicine in Epilepsy

The concept of precision medicine aims to tailor treatment to an individual’s genetic profile and specific type of epilepsy. How might precision medicine change epilepsy treatment in the future? By identifying genetic markers associated with specific types of epilepsy or drug responsiveness, doctors may be able to choose the most effective treatment with fewer side effects for each patient.

Gene Therapy

Gene therapy holds promise for treating certain genetic forms of epilepsy. How does gene therapy work in the context of epilepsy? It involves introducing genetic material into a patient’s cells to correct or compensate for genetic mutations that cause seizures. While still in early stages, this approach could potentially offer a cure for some forms of epilepsy rather than just symptom management.

As we continue to unravel the complexities of epilepsy, our ability to diagnose, treat, and manage this condition improves. From advanced imaging techniques to novel therapeutic approaches, the field of epileptology is rapidly advancing. However, it’s important to remember that epilepsy is a highly individual condition, and what works for one person may not work for another. Close collaboration between patients, caregivers, and healthcare providers remains crucial in navigating the challenges of living with epilepsy and finding the most effective management strategies.

Seizure terminology: A glossary – Seer Medical

Absence seizure — A type of generalised onset seizure, also known as a dialeptic seizure or a petit mal seizure. Characterised by blank stares and a brief loss of awareness, sometimes with blinking. They may last anywhere between 2–20 seconds. Usually, they develop in childhood, but are often outgrown and can be easily controlled with medication. 

Accommodation — Any change that gives people with disabilities an equal opportunity to work.

Adversive seizures — Seizures characterised by rotation of the head, eyes, or body.

Ambulatory EEG monitoring —  A system for recording the electroencephalogram outside of the hospital for a short period of time.

Anticonvulsants — A drug used to control seizures. 

Anti-epileptic drugs — Medications used to treat epilepsy, also called anticonvulsants or AEDs.  

Atonic seizure — Seizures characterised by the sudden loss of muscle tone, often in the arms or legs. Known to cause objects in hands to drop or sudden falls. 

Aura — Focal aware seizure. Some people use “aura” to describe a warning sign of a seizure 

Benign focal epilepsy of childhood — An epilepsy syndrome found in children characterised by focal aware seizures during sleep. Known to cause changes around the face or tongue, gurgling noises, or rapid movement of facial muscles. They are easily controlled with medication, but are often infrequent enough to be left untreated. These are usually outgrown by puberty.

Catamenial epilepsy — The tendency for people with epilepsy to experience seizures around the time of menstruation. 

Chronic epilepsy — When seizures are resistant to medication and other treatments.

Clonic seizure — Epileptic seizures characterised by sudden rhythmic movement involving all parts of the body.

Computed tomography — Also known as a CT or cat scan. A technique using x-rays and computers to create an image of the inside of a body, particularly of someone’s brain. Similar to an MRI but makes a lower resolution image. 

Corpus callosum — The major nerve structures that connect the two hemispheres of the brain. Helps to share information between each half of the brain. 

Corpus callosotomy — A surgery that cuts the corpus callosum to interrupt the spread of seizures between brain hemispheres. Most effective against atonic and tonic-clonic seizures. 

Drop attacks — A sudden fall without loss of consciousness, categorised as tonic or atonic seizures when part of epilepsy.

ECG (electrocardiogram) — Diagnostic test of the electrical activity of the heart. 

EEG (electroencephalogram) — Diagnostic test of the electrical activity of the brain.

EEG video monitoring — A continuous EEG test with accompanying video to observe behaviour. Used for diagnosing epilepsy, localising the seizure focus, and determining treatment.

EPC (epilepsia partialis continua) — Continuous or prolonged partial seizures. Characterised by sudden movement in the arms, legs, or face.

Epilepsy — A medical condition characterised by recurrent seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Epilepsy surgery — A procedure to prevent further seizures. Successful in most patients depending on the type of epilepsy.

Epilepsy syndrome — A disorder defined by a cluster of epilepsy symptoms occurring together with a known prognosis. 

Epileptogenic zone — The area of the brain responsible for the abnormal electrical signals that cause seizures.

Febrile seizures — Tonic-clonic seizures that are known to occur in young children and infants as a result of fevers. 

Focal impaired awareness seizure — Seizures that involve partially impaired awareness. Characterised by staring into space or unintentional movements.

Focal seizure — An outdated term for partial seizures. A seizure that begins in the focal area of the brain and may not spread to other parts.

Generalised seizure — A seizure that occurs in both hemispheres of the brain at once. May be convulsive or non-convulsive, and may cause tonic-clonic or other movements. 

Grand-mal seizure — An outdated term for tonic-clonic seizures. Characterised by losing consciousness and collapsing, often with body stiffening or sudden muscle movements.

Hemisphere — Cerebral hemispheres, referring to one half of the brain.

Hemispherectomy — A surgical procedure to remove portions of one hemisphere of the brain to prevent seizures from spreading.

Idiopathic generalised epilepsies — Epilepsy syndromes characterised by onset from both hemispheres of the brain at once.

Isolated seizures — A single seizure with no risk factors for epilepsy.

Ketogenic diet — A treatment for epilepsy involving high fats, and low carbs. Most often recommended for children with a generalised epilepsy that has failed to respond to medication.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) — An imaging technique for getting pictures of the inside of the body without using x-rays.

Myoclonic seizure — A seizure characterised by sudden but brief movements on both sides of the body, most often in the arms and shoulders.

Neurologist — A doctor who specialises in epilepsy and other disorders of the brain and nervous system.

Nocturnal seizure — A seizure that occurs at night during sleep.

Partial seizure — See focal seizure. a seizure that occurs in a specific part of the brain and does not travel to other parts.

Petit mal — An outdated term for absence seizure.  

Seizure — Altered brain function as a result of abnormal electrical discharges in the brain, often causing changes in behaviour or motor function.

Seizure focus — The part of the brain where a seizure started.

Tonic seizure — Seizures characterised by stiff muscles and abnormal electrical activity on both sides of the brain.

Tonic-clonic seizure — Formally known as grand-mal seizure. A type of seizure marked by sudden loss of consciousness, body stiffness, and sudden muscle movements. Characterised by losing consciousness and collapsing, often with body stiffening or sudden muscle movements.

Unknown onset seizure — A seizure that cannot be diagnosed as focal or generalised.

Glossary of Epilepsy Terms

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

Absence seizure: (also know as “dialeptic seizure” or “petit mal seizure”) a seizure that causes a brief loss of awareness. During an absence seizure, the patient stops any activity and stares blankly. Rarely, there may be some blinking.

Antiseizure drug (ASD): Also called an anticonvulsant an antiepileptic drug used to control both convulsive and nonconvulsive seizures.

Atonic seizure: a seizure that causes a sudden loss of muscle tone, particularly in the arms and legs, and often causes the patient to fall.

Aura: a warning or initial symptom at the beginning of a seizure, experienced by the patient, but not visible to observers. Auras may progress to become focal or even generalized seizures, or they may exist alone.

Bilateral tonic clonic seizure: Formerly called grand-mal seizures, an older term for a seizure in which the patient loses consciousness and collapses. The patient also has body stiffening and violent jerking, and then often goes into a deep sleep. Also known as a generalized convulsion.

Clonic seizure: repetitive, rhythmic jerks that involve all or part of the body.

Corpus callosum: a band of nerve fibers located deep in the brain that connects the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain. The corpus callosum helps the hemispheres share information.

Corpus callosotomy: an operation that cuts the corpus callosum and interrupts the spread of seizures from one hemisphere of the brain to the other. Callosotomies may be complete, or may involve only a portion of the corpus callosum. Although seizures generally do not completely stop after this procedure, they usually become less severe.

EEG-video monitoring: Continuous simultaneous recording of brainwaves and video observation of the behavior accompanying the EEG. This technique, carried out at comprehensive epilepsy centers, is employed to diagnose epilepsy and localize the seizure focus. The results are useful to determine therapy — medical or surgical.

Epilepsy: a chronic medical condition marked by recurrent epileptic seizures. Patients may have single seizures as a result of fever, drug withdrawal, or trauma, for example, but are not labeled as having epilepsy if seizures do not recur.

Epileptogenic zone: the region of the brain responsible for the abnormal electrical signals that cause seizures.

Electrode: a conductive disk (usually metal) attached to the scalp which conveys the electrical activity of the brain through a wire to an EEG machine. During an electroencephalogram, typically around 20 electrodes are temporarily pasted to the scalp.

Electroencephalogram (EEG): a diagnostic test that measures brain waves, the electrical impulses in the cerebral cortex. This test helps a doctor to diagnose epilepsy.

Epilepsy surgery: a neuro-surgical procedure to prevent further seizures, usually accomplished by resecting the epileptogenic zone. Successful in eliminating seizures in a large majority of patients, depending on the type of epilepsy identified during EEG-video monitoring.

Extratemporal cortical resection: an operation to cut out (resect) brain tissue that contains a seizure focus. “Extratemporal” means the tissue is located in an area of the brain other than the temporal lobe, most often the frontal lobe.

Focal onset aware seizure: (also known as a “partial seizure”) a seizure that occurs in a limited area in only one hemisphere of the brain. This type of seizure is more amenable to treatment with surgery than are generalized seizures.

Focal onset impaired awareness seizure: Formrly called complex partial seizures are seizures that includes impairment of awareness, for example, patients seem to be “out of it” or “staring into space.” Unintentional movements or other movements are frequently a part of the seizure.

Functional hemispherectomy: a procedure in which portions of one hemisphere of the brain which is not functioning normally are removed, and the corpus callosum is split. This interrupts the communications among the various lobes and between the two hemispheres and prevents the spread of seizures.

Hemisphere: one half of the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain.

Generalized seizure: a seizure that occurs all through the brain.

Ketogenic diet: a treatment for epilepsy intended to maintain the starvation or fasting metabolism for a long period in order to create ketones, byproducts of fat-burning metabolism. Seizures often lessen or disappear during periods of fasting. The diet is very high in fat and low in carbohydrates and is most often recommended for children ages 2 through 12 who have been diagnosed with a generalized type of epilepsy, and who have failed to respond to a variety of medications.

Lesionectomy: surgery to remove isolated brain lesions that are responsible for seizure activity.

Lobe: one of the sections of the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain. The lobes are divided into four paired sections (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal). The seizure focus is usually located in one of the lobes.

Lumbar puncture: a diagnostic procedure in which the fluid surrounding the spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid) is withdrawn through a needle and examined in a lab. Also known as a spinal tap.

Multiple subpial transection: a surgical procedure to help control seizures that begin in areas of the brain that cannot be safely removed (areas that control movements or speech). The surgeon makes a series of shallow cuts (transections) in the brain tissue to interrupt the movement of seizure impulses.

myoclonic seizure: a seizure that consists of sporadic jerks, usually on both sides of the body. Patients with these seizures may drop or involuntarily throw objects.

Neurologist: a doctor who specializes in the treatment of epilepsy and other disorders of the brain and nervous system.

Neuron: a single nerve cell. The brain is made up of billions of neurons. Many neurons malfunctioning together are necessary to produce a seizure.

Nonepileptic event: an event that resembles a seizure but is actually produced by another condition, such as Tourette syndrome or heart rhythm disturbances (arrhythmias). Certain psychological conditions can also bring on a nonepileptic event.

Responsive neurostimulation device: RNS consists of a small neurostimulator implanted within the skull under the scalp. The neurostimulator is connected to one or two wires (called electrodes) that are placed where the seizures are suspected to originate within the brain or on the surface of the brain. The device detects abnormal electrical activity in the area and delivers electrical stimulation to normalize brain activity before seizure symptoms begin.

Seizure: an event of altered brain function caused by abnormal or excessive electrical discharges in the brain. Most seizures cause sudden changes in behavior or motor function.

Seizure focus: the area of the brain in which a seizure starts.

Status epilepticus: a prolonged seizure (usually defined as lasting longer than 5 minutes) or a series of repeated seizures without regaining consciousness. Status epilepticus is a medical emergency and medical help should be obtained immediately.

Temporal lobe resection: a surgical procedure in which brain tissue in the temporal lobe is cut away (resected) to remove the seizure focus.

Tonic seizure: a seizure that is characterized by stiffening of the muscles, sustained for more than a few seconds.

Tonic-clonic seizure: a seizure marked by loss of consciousness, falling, stiffening, and jerking. This is the hallmark of a generalized motor seizure, which used to be called a “grand mal seizure.”

Vagus nerve: a small cranial nerve that passes through the neck and is connected to various areas of the brain and other organs in the body, including the stomach, heart, and lungs.

Vagus nerve stimulation: a surgical treatment for epilepsy involving implantation in the neck of an electrode on the vagus nerve. The electrode is connected to a pacemaker that is placed under the skin in the chest. While the VNS is usually programmed to cycle continuously, the patient can turn the stimulator on, using a small magnet placed over the pacemaker, if they feel a seizure coming on.

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Cramps

In scientific terminology, cramps are unforeseen, sudden, jerky muscle contractions.

The following types of seizures are distinguished:

• Local seizures, covering a certain muscle group. For example, in a person who squats for a long time. Spasms of the face, muscles of the hand, feet or body can be observed when the cerebral cortex is damaged. More precisely, the area that is responsible for the functioning of the muscles;
• Generalized or generalized convulsions cover the entire body of a person. At the same time, there is a loss of consciousness, the appearance of foam at the mouth, unexpected urination. Seizures are observed during the attack of epilepsy, with the appearance of craniocerebral injuries, after infectious or intoxication ailments.

Seizures of various types can occur when blood flow processes are disturbed or when blood vessels and capillaries are damaged. And also, soft tissues of the lower extremities.

There are such convulsive seizures:

• Tonic convulsions are specific, obvious muscle strains. This phenomenon applies to all muscle groups, up to the respiratory tract. These are long muscle contractions over a long period of time. Tonic convulsions can be described as follows: the body of a person remains elongated, the teeth and muscles are compressed, the head is tilted back;
• Clonic convulsions – transformation of muscle tone, sudden twitching of tissues. In other words, these are periodic convulsions of the flexion and extensor elements. At the same time, involuntary jerks of the limbs and torso are observed. Basically, they occur with loss of consciousness or epilepsy;
• In practice, mixed variants have also been observed. That is, generalized tonic-clonic seizures. The main feature of seizures is a complete abrupt shutdown of consciousness. It all starts with a large tonic spasm, which is accompanied by wheezing. The duration of such a seizure is from 40 seconds to 2 minutes.

Seizure prevention

If the seizures come on suddenly, a pain reliever may help. After that, the damaged area should be thoroughly kneaded. For what? To restore normal blood circulation.

It should be noted that the presence of calcium in the body is directly related to the occurrence of seizures. Therefore, if such attacks are observed, it is worth including more foods containing calcium in your diet. For example: dairy products, fish, etc.

When convulsions appear, it is best to contact a specialist. Namely, they will help and develop a special treatment regimen. Which doctors can help with this issue? They are:

• Therapists;
• Vascular surgeons;
• Endocrinologists;
• Neurologists;
• Dermatologists.

Causes of seizures

From a medical point of view, there can be a lot of such nuances. They can be provoked by the same hyperkinesis (overabundance of movements).

Seizures develop differently in each person and have their own nature. For example: facial hemispasm affects the facial part. It lasts for 1-3 minutes.

As for the lower endings, the area of ​​the feet and calf muscles, the appearance of cramps can be noted there. They do not last long, but severe pain is noticeable. They appear at night during pull-ups. In this case, the muscles begin to contract, the feet begin to bend, the fingers begin to come down.

Even everyday situations can cause seizures. For example: frequent physical activity, bad habits, severe hypothermia or sheer heat.

Convulsions can also occur if there is a lack of blood sugar.

So, if convulsions have become a frequent occurrence in your life, you should seek specialized help! Specialists of the IntelPlus clinic in Vidnoe will help determine the obvious cause of their appearance and develop a special treatment regimen.

Glossary of terms

Neurological terms

• Blepharospasm eye.
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis – a rapidly progressive disease of the nervous system caused by selective degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal cord, cortex and brainstem (motor neuron disease). The first symptoms of the disease are weakness of the muscles of the limbs, muscle twitches (fasciculations) and local muscle atrophy or bulbar (or pseudobulbar) disorders in the form of swallowing disorders (dysphagia) and speech by the type of dysarthria.
• Wilson-Konovalov’s disease (hepatocerebral dystrophy, hepatolenticular degeneration) is a severe progressive genetically determined disease with an autosomal recessive type of inheritance, which is based on a violation of copper metabolism with its excessive accumulation mainly in the liver and brain. The concentration of copper rises in the blood serum, its excretion in the urine (hypercupuria) increases, its increased deposition in organs and tissues, especially in the cornea (Kaiser-Fleischer rings). The main neurological signs: muscle rigidity, hyperkinesis, ataxia, pyramidal insufficiency, dementia.
• Parkinson’s disease – chronic progressive degenerative disease of the central nervous system, clinically manifested by impaired voluntary movements.
• Botulinum toxin (dysport) – toxin, which is produced by the bacterium Clostridium Botulinum, acts at the level of neuromuscular transmission, blocking the release of one of the chemical neurotransmitters – acetylcholine, thereby preventing the transfer of an electrical impulse from the nerve ending to the muscle, which leads to a weakening of hypertonicity -reduction of pathological muscle tension.
• Inflammatory polyneuropathy – multiple symmetrical lesions of the nerve trunks of an inflammatory nature.
• Generalized dystonia – dystonic movements and dystonic postures that involve both legs (or one leg and trunk) and at least one other part of the body.
• Hyperkinesis – involuntary, violent, automated movements, usually aggravated by excitement and decreasing in severity with distraction, at rest.
• Tension headache – the most common type of headache. Pain can first appear at any age, almost always bilateral, localized in the occipital, temporal or frontal regions, has a pressing or squeezing character and is not accompanied by vomiting, but sometimes it can be combined with anorexia, nausea, light or sound phobia.
• Degenerative disease of the nervous system – a group of diseases of the nervous system, the manifestation of which are violations of higher brain functions. Higher brain functions can be divided into cognitive, affective and behavioral. Cognitive (cognitive) functions (memory, attention, thinking, orientation, speech, counting, etc.) provide a person’s ability to process information and use it to correct their actions. Affective and behavioral (emotional-personal) functions determine the formation and implementation of actual motivations, the regulation of behavior in the social sphere.
• Dementia (loss of mind, dementia) – acquired, caused by a chronic, progressive disease of the brain, usually gradually increasing disorder of various types of higher mental functions (memory, speech, thinking, ability to orientate, learning, etc.), emotional control, motivation , social behavior with preserved consciousness.
• Stroke – a severe form of acute cerebrovascular accident, more often developing in patients with atherosclerosis, arterial hypertension, as well as in case of rupture of intracerebral aneurysms, embolism of cerebral vessels and manifested by focal neurological symptoms that persist for more than 24 hours.
• Camptokarmia – a rare form of dystonia, involving mainly the muscles of the trunk, often manifested by a sharp posterior hyperextension of the trunk, less often rotation occurs when the trunk is tilted to the side or the trunk is tilted forward.
• Cluster headache – a form of primary headache, characterized by paroxysms of strictly unilateral very intense, excruciating pain, grouped into peculiar bundles (clusters), separated by more or less long periods of remission.
• Facial hemispasm – disease manifested by paroxysms of unilateral clonic contraction of mimic muscles.
• Lumbalgia – pain in the lower back, often of the aching or arching type, tend to intensify when moving, when moving from one position to another and gradually subside in the supine position. Movement in the lumbar spine is possible, but limited due to pain.
• Lumboischalgia – pain and reflex disorders localized in the lower back, gluteal region and leg.
• Myasthenia gravis – a neuromuscular disease characterized by pathological, rapid fatigue striated muscles (intensification of manifestations after physical exertion and their decrease after rest).
• Migraine – paroxysmal headache, more often on one side (hemicrania), mainly in the frontotemporal region. The attack may be preceded by precursors in the form of changes in the emotional state, autonomic reactions and aura, manifested by short-term subjective sensations immediately preceding the headache.
• Myopathy – the general name of hereditary diseases in which metabolic disorders lead to primary muscle damage. Manifested by weakness, hypotension and hypotrophy of muscles, tendon and periosteal areflexia, limited range of active movements.
• Hereditary ataxia – a chronic progressive hereditary disease that manifests itself at the age of 30-45 years with slowly increasing cerebellar disorders in combination with signs of pyramidal insufficiency. The clinical picture is characterized by static and dynamic ataxia, intentional tremor, dysarthria, tendon hyperreflexia.
• Hereditary polyneuropathy – is a group of common hereditary diseases of the nervous system, the main clinical manifestations of which are caused by damage to the axial cylinders or the myelin sheath of peripheral nerves.
• Trigeminal neuralgia – short-term (up to 2 minutes) acute, burning, shooting pain in the zone of innervation of one or more branches of the trigeminal nerve. Attacks of pain are accompanied by vegetative disorders (hyperemia of the face, lacrimation, hypersalivation, etc.), and often by reflex contractions of facial and masticatory muscles.
• Neuropathy of the facial nerve – is manifested by acute or subacute signs of damage to the facial nerve (paralysis of mimic muscles). It can be provoked by hypothermia, intoxication.
• Neurogenic urination disorder – 1) bladder filling disorder, clinically manifested by frequent urination (more than 8 times a day), urge to urinate, periodic incontinence due to the fact that the patient is not able to voluntarily slow down urination (imperative incontinence). 2) a violation of the emptying of the bladder, manifested by a weakening of the urge, the need to strain at the beginning of urination, constant excretion of urine drop by drop and a significant increase in the volume of residual urine.
• Olivopontocerebellar atrophy – a group of chronic progressive hereditary diseases in which atrophic changes develop mainly in the cerebellum, inferior olive nuclei, in the pons proper nuclei and in related brain structures.
• Parkinsonism – syndrome, manifested by a combination of hypokinesia with rigidity, rest tremor and postural instability, associated with damage to the basal ganglia and their connections.
• Writer’s spasm – the most common occupational spasm in the form of a local paroxysmal tonic spasm. Occurs in the muscles of the hand, as a rule, during the act of writing. The cramp usually appears first in the fingers and then spreads in the proximal direction, may be accompanied by pain, sometimes tremors, myoclonus in the same hand.
• Plexitis – lesion of the nerve plexus, characterized by sensory, motor and trophic disorders.
• Radiculo-ischemia – ischemia of the nerve root, caused by compression of the vessels supplying it, is manifested by a sharp increase in pain, weakness in the foot, and impaired urination may develop.
• Radiculopathy – lesion of the spinal roots of a non-inflammatory nature.
• Multiple sclerosis – chronic relapsing disease of the central nervous system, which is characterized by the formation of multiple scattered foci of demyelination in the brain and spinal cord.
• Vascular encephalopathy (dyscirculatory encephalopathy) – brain damage caused by chronic cerebrovascular insufficiency, causing diffuse changes in the brain tissue and scattered neurological microsymptoms, combined with emotional lability and intellectual-mnestic disorders, the severity of which is variable, but tends to to a gradual increase.
• Thoracalgia – chest pain.
• Cervicobrachialgia – pain associated with an inflammatory or degenerative lesion of the cervical spine extending to the arm.
• Cervicocranialgia – Pain associated with an inflammatory or degenerative lesion of the cervical spine, usually localized in the cervico-occipital region, but often spreading to the frontotemporal region, shoulder and arm.

Neurosurgical terms

• Arterial aneurysm brain – limited expansion of the lumen of the artery or protrusion of its wall. Among arterial aneurysms, saccular aneurysms are the most common, less often – spherical, fusiform or S-shaped aneurysms. Arterial aneurysms are 10 times more common than arteriovenous ones. Arterial and arteriovenous aneurysms are of congenital origin, about 5% of arterial aneurysms are mycotic aneurysms that develop due to the entry of infected emboli into the cerebral arteries. A significant part of aneurysms are asymptomatic and can be determined by autopsy or angiography, magnetic resonance imaging-angiography as an incidental finding.
• Arteriovenous malformation – a vascular tangle of various sizes, formed by a disorderly interweaving of dilated arteries and veins of the brain.
• Atherosclerotic stenosis of the cerebral arteries – narrowing of the lumen of the artery caused by the formation of atherosclerotic deposits on the inner wall of the vessel.
• Hydrocephalus – a disease characterized by excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricular system of the brain as a result of difficulty in moving it from the place of secretion (cerebral ventricles) to the place of absorption into the circulatory system (subarachnoid space) – occlusive hydrocephalus, or as a result of impaired absorption – aresorptive hydrocephalus.
• Lumbar disc herniation is a displacement of the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disc with a rupture of the annulus fibrosus.
• Carotid-cavernous fistula-carotid-cavernous fistula post-traumatic – is a message between the internal carotid artery and the cavernous sinus. The etiology of KKS in the vast majority of cases of TBI is associated with a fracture of the base of the skull, and often the crack passes in the projection of the cavernous sinus. As a result of the injury, the complex system of “suspension” of the carotid artery in the sinus on the trabeculae is disrupted, the wall of the artery is torn and a fistula is formed, through which arterial blood is “discharged” into the venous bed.
• Brain tumors – a heterogeneous group of various intracranial neoplasms, benign or malignant, arising from the initiation of the process of abnormal uncontrolled cell division, which in the past were normal components of the brain tissue itself (neurons, glial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells), lymphatic tissue, blood vessels of the brain, cranial nerves, meninges, skull, glandular formations of the brain (pituitary and epiphysis), or arising from metastasis of a primary tumor located in another organ. The type of tumor is determined by the cells that form it. Depending on the localization and histological variant, the symptoms of the disease are formed. Brain tumors are relatively rare – about 1.5% of all types of tumors.
• Spinal cord tumors – account for 15% of all CNS tumors. There are extra- and intramedullary tumors. Extramedullary tumors can be located under the dura mater and above it. Extradural tumors are usually malignant (metastasized). Among subdural tumors, 70% are extramedullary and 30% are intramedullary. The most common subdural extramedullary tumors are neurinomas (30%) and meningiomas (25%). A typical picture of an extramedullary tumor consists of three stages: the stage of radicular pain, the stage of partial compression of the spinal cord (often in the form of Brown-Sequard syndrome) and the stage of complete transverse compression of the spinal cord. Following radicular pains at the level of the tumor (most often such pains are observed in neurinomas and metastatic tumors), para- or tetraparesis, loss of sensitivity and pelvic disorders gradually increase. Intramedullary tumors are most often gliomas; ependymomas are not uncommon in the region of the cone and cauda equina. In contrast to extramedullary tumors, in which sensory and motor disorders increase from the bottom up, intramedullary tumors are characterized by the development of spinal symptoms from top to bottom.
• Spinal stenosis is a chronic process characterized by pathological narrowing of the central spinal canal, lateral pocket or intervertebral foramen by bone, cartilage and soft tissue structures, with their invasion into the spaces occupied by the nerve roots and spinal cord. Narrowing of the spinal canal caused by disc herniation, which leads to acute compression of the neurovascular structures, usually does not apply to stenosis.
• Stereotaxis – stereotaxic surgery (or stereotaxis) is a minimally invasive method of surgical intervention when access is made to a target point inside the body or tissue thickness of an organ using a spatial scheme according to pre-calculated coordinates in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In modern surgery, stereotaxis It is used mainly in brain neurosurgery, when exceptional accuracy is required in delivering a surgical instrument (biopsy, destruction or stimulation) to a predetermined area through the thickness of the brain without the risk of damage to structures critical to the health and life of the patient.
• Peripheral nerve injuries – open and closed. Open injuries are found in stab, cut, chopped and other wounds, as well as in gunshot wounds. The latter, along with mechanical damage to the nerve, cause concussion and bruising of the nerve and surrounding tissues, which greatly increases the severity of morphological changes in the nerve and surrounding tissues and affects the further course and prognosis of the recovery period. With closed injuries, the nerves are injured by the edge of a bone fracture, pressed down with blunt objects to adjacent bones, overstretched during dislocation of the joints, traction of the limbs, squeezed by plaster casts, a long-term tourniquet, and acute swelling of the limb.
• Traumatic brain injury – mechanical damage to the skull and intracranial structures – the brain, blood vessels, cranial nerves, meninges. The main reasons are traffic accidents, falls, industrial, sports and domestic injuries. Brain damage can be the result of: 1) focal damage, usually causing contusion (contusion) of the cortical regions of the brain or intracranial hematoma; 2) diffuse axonal damage involving the deep sections of the white matter. Allocate open craniocerebral injury (TBI), in which there is communication between the cranial cavity and the external environment, and closed.

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