What is the structure and function of the sternum. How does the sternum develop embryologically. Which muscles attach to the sternum. What is the clinical significance of sternal anatomy.

Sternum Anatomy: Structure and Function

The sternum, a crucial component of the anterior chest wall, is a partially T-shaped vertical bone divided into three distinct segments: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. This bony structure plays a vital role in protecting the underlying mediastinum and its contents from injury.

Manubrium

The manubrium, the broad superior segment of the sternum, is quadrangular in shape with four borders. Its key features include:

• The suprasternal notch (jugular notch) at the superior segment
• Left and right clavicular notches on either side
• Articulation with the medial end of each clavicle, forming the sternoclavicular joints
• Articulation with the costal cartilages of the first pair of ribs

Body of the Sternum

The body, or mesosternum, is the longest part of the sternum. Its characteristics include:

• A flat surface with depressed ridges along the sides
• Articulation points for the costal cartilages of the 3rd to 7th pairs of ribs
• Junction with the manubrium at the sternal angle, where the 2nd pair of ribs attaches

Xiphoid Process

The xiphoid process, or xiphisternum, forms the distal-most part of the sternum. Its notable features are:

• Triangular shape with highly variable size and form
• Primarily cartilaginous until age 40, becoming fully calcified by age 60
• Significant variability in age-related changes among adults

Embryological Development of the Sternum

The sternum’s development is a fascinating process that begins early in fetal life. How does this complex structure form?

The sternum develops from a pair of sternal bands called “sternal bars,” which are concentrations of mesenchymal cells on either side of the midline. This process initiates during the 6th week of fetal development. By the 10th week, these sternal bands, arising from the parietal layer of the lateral plate mesoderm, transform into pre-cartilaginous structures. These structures then migrate and fuse in a craniocaudal direction, forming the sternal plate.

The primary cartilaginous model of the three sternal segments forms in the 7th week of intrauterine life. This model consists of six horizontal divisions known as sternebrae:

1. The superior-most sternebra becomes the manubrium sterni
2. The four middle sternebrae form the body of the sternum
3. The inferior-most sternebra develops into the xiphoid process

In the sequence of formation, the manubrium sterni is the first to develop, followed by the sternal body and finally the xiphoid process.

Vascular Supply of the Sternum

Understanding the blood supply of the sternum is crucial for surgical procedures and post-operative care. How is the sternum vascularized?

The primary blood supply to the sternum comes from the medial horizontal branches of the right and left internal thoracic arteries. These arteries typically originate directly from the first part of the subclavian arteries bilaterally, though they may occasionally stem from a common trunk.

The internal thoracic artery gives off several branches that contribute to sternal blood supply:

• Sternal branches
• Anterior intercostal branches
• Perforating branches
• Non-collateral branches

The sternal branches, which are the main suppliers of blood to the sternum, are primarily located in the intercostal spaces. However, the perforating branches also play a significant role in sternal blood supply.

For venous drainage, the internal thoracic veins channel blood from the sternum to the brachiocephalic vein on each side.

Muscles Attached to the Sternum

The sternum serves as an attachment point for various muscles of the neck, thorax, and anterior abdominal wall. Which specific muscles connect to this important bony structure?

Neck Muscles

• Sternocleidomastoid
• Sternohyoid
• Sternothyroid

Thoracic Muscles

• Pectoralis major
• Pectoralis minor
• Internal intercostal muscles
• Transversus thoracis

Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles

• Rectus abdominis

These muscle attachments highlight the sternum’s importance in various bodily functions, including respiration, arm movement, and core stability.

Clinical Significance of Sternal Anatomy

The sternum’s anatomical position and variations make it a structure of significant clinical importance. How does understanding sternal anatomy impact medical procedures and patient care?

Surgical Considerations

Knowledge of sternal anatomy is crucial for various surgical procedures, including:

• Median sternotomy for cardiac surgeries
• Sternal wire placement in chest wall reconstruction
• Bone marrow aspiration from the sternum

The sternal angle, formed by the junction of the manubrium and body of the sternum, serves as an important anatomical landmark. It corresponds anteriorly to the intervertebral disc between the 4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae, guiding clinicians in various diagnostic and therapeutic procedures.

Post-operative Complications

Understanding the blood supply of the sternum is critical in preventing and managing post-operative complications, particularly:

• Sternal infections following coronary artery bypass grafting using the internal thoracic artery
• Delayed healing after sternotomy procedures

Forensic Applications

Sternal anatomy also has forensic implications. The sternum’s unique characteristics and age-related changes can aid in:

• Age estimation in forensic anthropology
• Sex determination in unidentified human remains

Variations and Anomalies of the Sternum

While the basic structure of the sternum is consistent across individuals, there can be significant variations and anomalies. What are some of the common variations in sternal anatomy?

Sternal Foramen

A sternal foramen is a congenital defect resulting in a hole in the body of the sternum. It occurs in approximately 4-8% of the population and can be clinically significant during procedures such as acupuncture or bone marrow aspiration.

Bifid Sternum

In rare cases, the sternum may fail to fuse completely during embryological development, resulting in a bifid (split) sternum. This condition can be associated with other congenital abnormalities and may require surgical correction.

Xiphoid Process Variations

The xiphoid process is particularly variable in its morphology. It may be:

• Pointed
• Bifid
• Perforated
• Deflected anteriorly or posteriorly

These variations are generally of little clinical significance but may be important to recognize during imaging studies or surgical procedures.

Sternal Fractures and Trauma

The sternum’s position in the anterior chest wall makes it vulnerable to trauma. How do sternal fractures occur, and what are their implications?

Mechanisms of Injury

Sternal fractures most commonly result from:

• Motor vehicle accidents (particularly when wearing a seatbelt)
• Direct blows to the chest
• Falls from height

Clinical Presentation

Patients with sternal fractures typically present with:

• Anterior chest pain
• Tenderness over the sternum
• Pain exacerbated by deep breathing or coughing

Associated Injuries

While isolated sternal fractures are often not life-threatening, they can be associated with more severe injuries, including:

• Cardiac contusion
• Pulmonary contusion
• Rib fractures
• Thoracic spine injuries

Therefore, patients with sternal fractures often require thorough evaluation for associated injuries.

The Sternum in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

The sternum plays a crucial role in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. How does sternal anatomy influence CPR technique and effectiveness?

Chest Compression Location

Current CPR guidelines recommend placing the hands on the lower half of the sternum for chest compressions. This location allows for effective compression of the heart against the spine, maximizing blood flow during resuscitation efforts.

Depth of Compressions

The recommended depth for chest compressions in adults is at least 2 inches (5 cm) but not exceeding 2.4 inches (6 cm). The sternum’s structure and its connections to the ribs allow for this depth of compression without causing excessive damage to internal structures.

Potential Complications

While rare, CPR can sometimes result in sternal fractures or separation of costal cartilages. However, these complications are generally considered acceptable given the life-saving potential of CPR.

Understanding the anatomy and biomechanics of the sternum is crucial for healthcare providers performing CPR, as it helps ensure proper technique and maximizes the chances of successful resuscitation.

Anatomy, Thorax, Sternum – StatPearls

Introduction

The sternum is a partially T-shaped vertical bone that forms the anterior portion of the chest wall centrally. The sternum is divided anatomically into three segments: manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The sternum connects the ribs via the costal cartilages forming the anterior rib cage. The manubrium is the broad superior segment, the body is the middle portion, and the xiphoid process is a narrower distal segment forming the partial T-shape. The anatomical position and variations make the sternum an important bony structure of surgical significance. In addition to the anatomy of the sternum, clinical and forensic implications of the sternum are also topics in this article.

Structure and Function

• The manubrium (manubrium sterni) is quadrangular shaped with four borders. The suprasternal notch (jugular notch) is at the superior segment of the manubrium sterni. On either side, the left and right clavicular notches are present. The clavicular notches of the sternum articulate with the medial end of each clavicle to form the sternoclavicular joints. The manubrium sterni also articulates with the costal cartilages of the 1st pair of ribs. 

• The body of the sternum (mesosternum) is the longest part of the sternum. It is flat with depressed ridges along the sides where the costal cartilages of the 3rd to 7th pairs of ribs articulate inferior to the sternal angle.[1] The sternal angle is where the body of the sternum joins the manubrium sterni. Identification of the sternal angle is a useful anatomical landmark because the costal cartilages of the 2nd pair of ribs attach to the sternum at this site.[1][2]

• The xiphoid process (xiphisternum/xiphoid) is triangular shaped and forms the distal-most part of the sternum. The size and shape of the xiphoid process are highly variable. It is mostly cartilaginous until the age of 40 and becomes completely calcified by the age of 60. However, these age-related changes in the adult xiphoid process are also highly variable.

• The sternal angle is the projection formed by the junction between the manubrium sterni and the body of the sternum. These two parts of the sternum lie in slightly different planes causing the angulation. This angle corresponds anteriorly to the intervertebral disc between the 4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae. This angle is also known as the angle of Louis.

• The sternum’s primary function is to protect the underlying mediastinum and its contents from injury. 

Embryology

During the 6th developmental week of fetal life, the sternum develops independently from a pair of sternal bands called “sternal bars” which are concentrations of mesenchymal cells on either side of the midline.[3] By the 10th week of intrauterine life, these two sternal bands arise from the parietal layer of the lateral plate mesoderm bilaterally, then convert into pre-cartilaginous structures that migrate and fuse in a craniocaudal direction to form the sternal plate. In the 7th week of intrauterine life, the mesenchyme condenses resulting in the formation of the primary cartilaginous model of the three sternal segments (manubrium sterni, the body of the sternum and the xiphoid process). The cartilaginous sternal model consists of six horizontal divisions known as sternebrae. The superior-most sternebra and the inferior-most sternebra ultimately represent the manubrium sterni and xiphoid process, respectively. The four sternebrae that lie in between represent the body of the sternum.[3] The first part of the sternum to form during embryogenesis is the manubrium sterni followed by the sternal body and the xiphoid process.   

Blood Supply and Lymphatics

The blood supply of the sternum is mainly derived from the medial horizontal branches of the right and left internal thoracic arteries which originate directly from the first part of the subclavian arteries bilaterally or occasionally originate from a common trunk. The internal thoracic artery gives off sternal, anterior intercostal, perforating and non-collateral branches. Sternal branches of the internal thoracic arteries which are the main branches supplying the sternum are primarily located in the intercostal spaces. Not only sternal branches but also perforating branches appear to contribute to the sternal blood supply.[4][5]

The blood supply of the sternum has a major role in the process of healing following sternotomy procedures.[4] It is also important to understand the blood supply of the sternum as sternal infections are not uncommon following the harvest of the internal thoracic artery for coronary artery bypass grafting.[5]

For the venous drainage, the internal thoracic veins drain into the brachiocephalic vein on each side.

Muscles

There are several muscles (muscles of the neck, muscles of the thorax, muscles of the anterior abdominal wall) attached to the sternum.[1] The sternocleidomastoid, sternohyoid and sternothyroid attach to the manubrium sterni. The transversus thoracis muscle attaches to the body of the sternum and xiphoid process. Pectoralis major is another major muscle attached to the body of the sternum. The xiphoid process provides an attachment site for the diaphragm, the most important muscle of respiration, and the abdominal muscular including the external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis muscles.

Physiologic Variants

Usually, females have a shorter and thinner body of the sternum when compared to males.

Anatomic Variations

There are many variations in the sternum that commonly exist. Variations are most common in the distal-most region of the sternum. One of the most prevalent sternal variations is the bifid xiphoid.

Anatomical variations of the sternal angle also exist, for example, the sternal angle can be misplaced resulting in inaccurate counting of the ribs and thereby resulting in errors on physical examination of the chest and procedural errors during nerve blocks and needle thoracostomies. Also, a misplaced sternal angle can increase the risk of sternal fracture in blunt chest trauma. Sometimes an additional sternal symphysis “angle” can exist, which on imaging studies can mimic a sternal fracture, traumatic fissure or osteolytic lesion.[6]

Another congenital defect of the anterior chest wall is the sternal cleft, which results from the failure of midline fusion of the sternum. Depending on the degree of separation, the sternal cleft can be complete or incomplete. The sternal cleft leaves the heart and great vessels unprotected and exposed. A narrow sternal cleft can be even mistaken for a sternal fracture which is another reason why this cleft is of clinical significance.[6][7]

Incomplete fusion of the cartilaginous sternal model can lead to the formation of a circular shaped sternal foramen.[8] This anomaly should not be mistaken for an abnormality during imaging studies of the thorax. Radiologists and surgeons should be well versed in the anatomical variations of the sternum. Moreover, the lack of awareness of the sternal foramen is a subject of concern for the forensic pathologist or anthropologist during the forensic examination of skeletal remains.

Surgical Considerations

The sternum makes up one of the most important landmarks used by surgeons for various procedures.

Median Sternotomy: Sternotomy is considered the benchmark incision for cardiac surgery.[9] The median sternotomy is considered a common critical incision whereby the surgeon splits the sternum along the median plane, enabling the surgeon to have a better view of the heart, great vessels, and the lungs. It is considered the most common osteotomy performed worldwide.[2]

Sternal Aspiration and Sternal Biopsy: These are procedures adopted to collect specimens of bone marrow from the sternum. The sternum is a commonly used site for collection of bone marrow because sternal hematopoietic marrow persists throughout life.[2] Examination of bone marrow is frequently indicated for the diagnosis of blood dyscrasias and metastatic cancer.

Clinical Significance

Sternal Malformations/Defects

• Cleft sternum

  • A cleft sternum (sternal cleft) is a developmental anomaly caused by the failure of fusion of the two lateral mesodermal sternal bars which later form the body of the sternum. [10] The estimated incidence of the cleft sternum is 1 in 50000 to 100000 live births,[3] representing 0.15 to 0.5% of all chest wall malformations.[3][11] Cleft sternum may occur in isolation or as syndromic in association with other malformations, for example, superficial craniofacial hemangiomas.[12][13] Different types of sternal clefts include the superior sternal cleft, inferior sternal cleft, subtotal sternal cleft, total sternal cleft, and median sternal cleft.[14] Cleft sternum of type superior sternal cleft may occur in combination with the cleft mandible.[15] 

• Pectus excavatum

  • Interestingly, there are reports of the sternal malformation of pectus excavatum even in ancient Egyptian mummies in medico-historical literature.[16] The estimated incidence of pectus excavatum, also known as “funnel chest,” is 1 in 400 to 1000 live births.[14] Pectus excavatum refers to a common chest wall defect where the sternum is depressed posteriorly.[17] This deformity is characterized by the inward displacement of the adjacent costal cartilages in addition to that of the sternum thus causing an abnormal depression of the anterior chest wall. Symptomatology in terms of cardiorespiratory function impairment depends on the severity of the inward displacement of the sternum that causes a reduction in the sterno-vertebral distance.[15]

• Pectus carinatum

  • The estimated incidence of pectus carinatum is 4 to 13 times less than that of pectus excavatum.[15] It is the second most common anterior chest wall defect after pectus excavatum. This deformity is characterized by the outward displacement of the sternum and the adjacent costal cartilages thus causing an abnormal protrusion of the anterior chest wall.[18] Clinical cardiorespiratory implications of pectus carinatum are less common than in pectus excavatum.[15]

• Sternal Foramen

  • The estimated incidence of sternal foramen is 2.5% to 13.8% of the general population.[8] As already stated, the sternal foramen results from the incomplete fusion of the cartilaginous sternal model. It is generally asymptomatic and is often an incidental finding found during imaging studies of the thorax. Related clinical implications call for precautions to be taken during sternal biopsy and acupuncture to prevent fatal complications from injury to the aorta or right ventricle.[14]

Other Issues

Forensic Profile of the Sternum

Examination of skeletal remains for forensic purposes may include the examination of the sternum. Often the forensic pathologist or osteologist aims to establish the forensic identity, which primarily includes ethnicity, sex, age, and stature, of an individual from the skeletal remains subjected for examination. Stature estimation from the sternum is a relatively new trend under research when compared to age estimation and sex determination from the sternum. However, not much is published on the determination of ethnicity from the sternum. Forensic anthropological studies are population-specific, and various studies on forensic identification of the sternum are conducted concerning specific populations worldwide.

• Sex determination from the sternum

  • Osteometric studies aiming at sex determination from the sternum were conducted in different populations. [19][20][21][22][23] The combined length of the body of the sternum and manubrium sterni is the single most useful metric parameter in sexing the sternum.[21][24] However, the accuracy of correctly sexing the sternum increases with multivariate analysis.[24]

• Age estimation from the sternum

  • The time of fusion or synostosis of the body of the sternum with the manubrium sterni and xiphoid process varies to such an extent that it is often considered unreliable for age estimation in adults.[25]

• Stature estimation from the sternum

  • The sternal body length and the combined length of the body of the sternum and manubrium sterni are useful predictors of stature. However, it bears repeating that the correlation of stature with the various lengths of the sternum is not better than the correlation of stature with the length of long bones of the lower and upper limbs. Population-specific and sex-specific (within a population) regression equations/formulae are derived to estimate stature from the sternum. [26][27][28][29]

Sternal Injuries

• Blunt force traumatic injury of the sternum

  • Sternal fractures predominantly correlate with deceleration injuries from road traffic accidents or blunt anterior chest trauma due to physical assault. Sternal fractures either occur in isolation or with other concomitant injuries.[30] Physical assault to the chest wall is responsible for the majority of direct sternal fractures with a high risk of internal organ or soft tissue damage.[30]

  • In the clinical setting, whenever a sternal fracture is suspected, it is crucial to ensure that structures underlying the sternum (heart and lungs) are not injured. On imaging, sternal fractures are visible on lateral chest X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scan. However, according to the current algorithm for the management of isolated sternal fractures, electrocardiogram (ECG) should be conducted to rule out any cardiac associated injuries. If the fracture is displaced, rewiring is needed. [31][32]

Forensic Implications of Sternal Bone Marrow Aspiration Fatalities

A surgical procedure-related fatality is a medicolegal death that requires further investigation. In such cases, a meticulous forensic autopsy is necessary. A forensic autopsy case report exists documenting a death from hemorrhage due to an iatrogenic penetrating injury of the thoracic aorta secondary to the procedure of bone marrow aspiration from the sternum.[36] Ultrasound-guided sternal bone marrow aspiration should be considered to minimize the risk of untoward incidents of fatal cardiovascular injury.[37] Utmost precautions should be carefully taken to avoid any uncalled for allegations of medical negligence.

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Figure

Sternum, Jugular Notch, Manubrium, Sternal Angle, Body, Xiphoid Process, Clavicular Notch, Facets for Attachment of Costal Cartilages 1-7. Contributed Illustration by Beckie Palmer

Figure

Sternum anatomy. Image courtesy S Bhimji MD

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Disclosure: Abdulraheem Altalib declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Kathleen Miao declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Ritesh Menezes declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Sternum Anatomy, Location, Function, Pain, Injuries

Your sternum is located in the middle of your chest and is also known as the breastbone. It protects the organs of your torso from injury and serves as a connection point for other bones and muscles.

Your sternum is a bone that’s located in the middle of your chest. It’s also sometimes referred to as the breastbone.

Your sternum protects the organs of your torso from injury and also serves as a connection point for other bones and muscles.

Keep reading to learn more about your sternum, its function, and what can cause pain in this part of your chest.

Your sternum is a flat bone that’s located in the middle of your torso. If you place your fingers at the center of your chest, you can feel it. The sternum has three parts:

• Manubrium. This is the top part of your sternum. Your collarbone and your first set of ribs connect here. The bottom of the manubrium shares a border with the body of the sternum. Your second set of ribs connects at this point.
• Body. The body is the middle part of the sternum and is also the longest. Your third through seventh set of ribs are connected to the body of the sternum via cartilage.
• Xiphoid process. This is the lower part of the sternum. Its shape can vary. The xiphoid process is composed mostly of cartilage, and it slowly begins to calcify as you age.

Your sternum serves two very important functions:

• Protection. Your sternum, along with your ribs, works to protect the organs of your torso, such as your heart, lungs, and chest blood vessels.
• Support. Your sternum also provides a connection point for other parts of your skeletal system, including your collarbone and most of your ribs. Some muscles of your chest and upper abdomen also connect to the sternum.

There are a variety of conditions that can affect your sternum, leading to pain and discomfort. Let’s dive deeper into some of the most common causes of sternum pain.

Costochondritis

Costochondritis is when the cartilage that connects your ribs to your sternum becomes inflamed. This can be caused by an injury or from a muscle strain, arthritis, or infection.

If you have costochondritis, the main symptom is chest pain or tenderness. Physical activity, coughing, stretching, or breathing deeply can make the pain feel worse.

Costochondritis is treated using pain medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). If your costochondritis is severe or recurring, physical therapy may also be recommended.

Muscle strains

A muscle strain happens when a muscle or tendon is injured. Muscle strains can also affect your chest. This can often happen due to the overuse of a muscle from working out, playing sports, or even excessive coughing.

If you’ve strained a muscle in your chest, you may notice:

• chest pain or tenderness
• bruising
• swelling
• limited range of motion
• weakness in the affected area

Initial treatment involves the RICE method, which stands for:

• Rest. Take a break from moving the injured muscle for a day or two, then proceed with gentle movement.
• Ice. Apply a cold compress to the injured area for the first 2 days following a muscle strain.
• Compression. Wrap a bandage around the injured area to prevent fluid buildup, which in turn can help minimize swelling.
• Elevation. Best suited to muscle strains in the arms or legs, this involves elevating the injury above the level of the heart to help fluid drain away from the injury.

Over-the-counter pain medication may also help with pain and swelling. Severe injuries may need surgery.

Sternal fracture

A sternal fracture is when there’s a break in your sternum. The most common cause of this is blunt force trauma from a car accident. Other potential causes include falls and sports injuries.

Some of the symptoms of a sternal fracture include:

• chest pain or tenderness, which can get worse when coughing or breathing deeply
• bruising
• swelling
• shortness of breath

Treatment depends on how severe the injury is. It typically involves rest and pain relief while you heal. In more severe cases, surgery may be needed to put the bone back in place.

Sternoclavicular joint problems

The sternoclavicular joint is the area where your collarbone meets your sternum. Although uncommon, sometimes you can develop joint problems in this area due to injury, arthritis, or infections.

Some indicators of sternoclavicular joint issues include:

• pain or tenderness in the area where your sternum meets your collarbone
• bruising
• swelling
• a crunching or crackling sound when you move your arm
• redness, fever, or chills, if an infection is present

Many times, a sternoclavicular problem can be treated conservatively. This involves:

• medications for relief of pain and swelling
• immobilization of the affected area
• avoiding activities that aggravate joint pain

Surgery may be needed in severe cases.

Collarbone injuries

Since your collarbone is connected to your sternum, injury to this bone may also lead to pain or discomfort around your sternum. Collarbone injuries often occur due to things like falls, accidents, or sports injuries.

Some of the symptoms of a collarbone injury include:

• pain or tenderness at the affected area that gets worse when you try to move your arm
• bruising
• swelling
• a crunching or crackling sound when you move your arm
• a bump or lump that you can feel in the affected area

In mild to moderate cases, a collarbone injury is often treated with:

• medications to ease pain and swelling
• support using an arm sling
• physical therapy exercises

More severe injuries may require surgery.

Other causes

The most common causes of sternum pain are musculoskeletal issues. However, there are other possible causes that aren’t related to injuries of the muscles or bones.

Other causes can include:

• lung conditions like pleurisy, pneumonia, or pulmonary embolism
• heart conditions such as angina, pericarditis, or heart attack
• digestive conditions like heartburn, GERD, or ulcers
• hernias
• a panic attack

If you have lingering pain or discomfort in the area of your sternum, make an appointment to see your doctor. They can diagnose the cause of the pain and work with you to put together a treatment plan.

Remember that chest pain is also associated with health emergencies like a heart attack and pulmonary embolism. Because of this, seek emergency medical attention for chest pain that:

• is new or unexplained
• doesn’t go away after a few minutes
• is accompanied by symptoms such as:
  • shortness of breath
  • sweating
  • lightheadedness
  • pain that spreads to your arm or jaw

The sternum is a long, flat bone that’s located in the middle of your chest. It provides both support and protection for your torso.

Several conditions can directly affect your sternum, leading to chest pain or discomfort. This is often due to musculoskeletal issues such as injuries, arthritis, or infections. Treatment often involves rest and medications for easing pain and swelling, although surgery may be needed in severe cases.

Other conditions can also cause pain in the area of your sternum. Some of them, such as a heart attack, are medical emergencies. If you experience new, unexplained chest pain that’s accompanied with shortness of breath, seek immediate medical care.

12 effective chest exercises

Sports and fitness

May 18, 2017 Some of them require dumbbells, an expander and bars, while others can be performed without special equipment.

Iya Zorina

Author of Lifehacker, athlete, Candidate Master of Sports

Exercises without special equipment

1. Complex of three push-ups

This complex will help pump all parts of the pectoral muscles in turn. Each of these exercises Lifehacker analyzed in detail in this article.

• Do a push-up with your feet elevated. This exercise provides a load on the upper part of the pectoral muscles.

• Immediately after this, do a push-up on the floor with a wide stance. Hands are located on the same level with the shoulders. This type of push-up will pump the middle part of the pectoral muscles.

• The last push-up in the complex – with hands on a hill. It provides a load on the lower part of the pectoral muscles.

If you want to make the complex more difficult, put a backpack with dumbbells or other weight on your back. The main thing is that the backpack fits snugly against the back and does not move during push-ups. A tourist one is well suited, which is fixed on the body with the help of additional fasteners.

2. One-Arm Push-ups

This exercise is much more difficult than the classic push-ups, it provides a serious load on the pectoral muscles, but requires training and arm strength.

• Stand in a push-up position, shift your body weight towards your right arm.
• Lower yourself into a push-up and at the bottom, transfer your body weight to your left hand.
• Push yourself up, leaning mainly on your left hand, and then transfer your body weight back to your right hand and repeat the exercise.
• Repeat with the other hand. In the second approach, lower yourself with an emphasis on your left hand, and rise with an emphasis on your right.

3. Raising hands on the floor

For this exercise, you will need a fairly slippery floor – tile or smooth linoleum – and two towels or pieces of cloth.

• Stand in push-up position with your hands on towels.
• Gently spread your arms out to the sides as wide as possible so that you can then rise.
• Bring your hands together in the starting position.

Perform the exercise as consciously and carefully as possible: spread your arms only as wide as you can get up.

4. Side push-ups

• Lie on the floor on your right side, place your right hand on your left shoulder and place your left hand on the floor in front of you.
• Press yourself up with your left hand to lift your torso off the floor. The pelvis remains on the floor.
• Lower yourself back down to the floor and repeat the exercise.
• Repeat on the other side.

5. Bar Dips

You will need bars for this exercise. Such complexes with a horizontal bar and bars for the home are sold, on which you can perform many exercises. If you are not in the mood to spend money, you can find parallel bars at any sports field or school stadium.

• Jump onto the parallel bars and support your body weight on straight arms. Lower your shoulders, cross and bend your legs slightly.
• Lower yourself down, bending your elbows, until your shoulders are parallel to the floor or slightly lower. Try to keep your elbows close to your body, pull your shoulders back and down, and squeeze your shoulder blades.
• In order to work the chest muscles, and not the triceps, tilt the chest slightly forward during push-ups – at an angle of about 30 degrees.
• Press yourself up, tensing your abs and repeat the exercise.

Free Weight Exercises

1. Dumbbell Bench Press

• Lie down on a bench or on the floor if you are exercising at home, and hold the dumbbells in your hands with your palms facing each other.
• Extend your arms out in front of you.
• Open the dumbbells so that a right angle is formed at the elbow.
• Exhale as you press the dumbbells up and repeat.
• During the exercise, press your lower back to the floor, do not arch your back.

2. Dumbbell Raise

This exercise works the chest muscles well and does not engage the triceps.

• Lie on the floor on your back, take dumbbells in your hands and raise them in front of you.
• Spread your arms slightly bent at the elbows, wide enough to touch the floor with your elbows. Do not bend your elbows too much so that the reduction of the arms does not turn into a dumbbell press.
• As you exhale, bring your hands together in front of you and repeat the exercise.

If it is possible to perform the exercise on a bench, use it. So you increase the range of motion, you can better stretch and load the pectoral muscles.

3. Half circle with dumbbells

• Lie on the floor or bench on your back, grab the dumbbells with an overhand grip and hold them near your hips.
• Move your arms, slightly bent at the elbows, through the sides behind your head, turning your palms up.
• In the same trajectory, return the arms back, connecting the dumbbells at the level of the hips.
• Perform the exercise without stopping at the extreme points: as soon as you put your hands behind your head, immediately return them back, touch the dumbbells to your hips – immediately start a new semicircle.

Resistance Exercises

For these exercises, you will need a resistance band and an upright stand or handle to hook it to. Expanders can be bought at any sports equipment store.

If you are in the gym, these exercises can be done in a crossover.

1. Row of the resistance band to the side

• Attach the resistance band at shoulder level, stand with your right side against the rack and take the loop in your right hand.
• Overcoming the resistance of the expander, move your hand forward. The final position is opposite the chest or opposite shoulder.
• Return arm to starting position and repeat.

2. Lunge Row

This exercise targets the lower head of the pectoral muscle.

• Attach the expander just above shoulder level.
• Take the loop in your right hand, step back a little, stretching the expander, and turn your right side to the rack.
• Lunge forward with your left foot, placing your left hand on it to make it easier to maintain position.
• In the initial position, the right arm with the expander is extended to the side and slightly bent at the elbow.
• Overcoming the resistance of the expander, move your right hand forward and down so that at the end point it is located above the bent knee.
• Return arm to starting position and repeat.
• Do the exercise with the other hand.

3. Two-arm Row

This exercise will work the middle and upper chest muscles.

• Attach the resistance band at hip height, grasp the loops with both hands and turn your back to the rack.
• Move away from the rack while pulling on the resistance band.
• Step forward and shift about 70% of your body weight onto your front foot.
• Raise your shoulders to parallel with the floor, bend your elbows at an angle of 90 degrees – this is the starting position.
• Overcoming the resistance of the expander, bring your hands forward and up so that the palms of your outstretched hands are at face level.
• Return arms to starting position and repeat.

4.

Push-ups with an expander on the back

This is a regular push-up, complicated by the use of an expander.

• Grasp the expander by both ends, passing it behind your back.
• Stand in an upright position with the ends of the expander pressed to the floor.
• Perform push-ups against the resistance of the resistance band.

As for the number of sets and repetitions, choose it yourself, based on your capabilities, the resistance of the expander or the weight of the dumbbells. The main thing is that the last two or three times in the approach should be really hard for you.

And don’t forget about food! Even the most rigorous workout won’t help build voluminous pecs if you don’t have enough protein in your diet.

How to quickly pump up a girl’s breasts at home

The ideal shape can be achieved even without plastic surgery. How to quickly pump up breasts for a girl at home – you will find the answer in our publication.

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Regular training to develop the chest muscles can guarantee an athletic form. To do this, you need to draw up a lesson plan, make a selection of effective exercises and follow the technique. You will find all this in our material.

Contents of the article

Exercise does not increase the size of the breasts, but it can be easily reshaped. How to build pectoral muscles in a week at home – we have found only the most effective exercises to create a beautiful bust.

Which chest muscles need to be pumped: a course in anatomy

The chest muscles are one of the largest muscle groups in our body, located on the outer surface of the thoracic region. They are fan-shaped and able to withstand intense loads. The peculiarity of this part of the body is that it is genetically predisposed to growth. If you perform special exercises, you can pump up your chest at home. The main thing is to train muscle fibers from different angles.

These fibers are divided into two types – superficial and deep. The first cover the chest. As soon as a woman or a man pumps up his chest at home or in the gym, as a result of regular training, a beautiful relief emerges. And the second are the own muscles of the chest. We will tell you how both are arranged.

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The superficial muscles consist of:

• The pectoralis major has a powerful structure and occupies 90% of the whole cell. It is located in its front side and limits the armpit. This muscle is responsible for lowering the arm from the top position to the body. It also adducts and rotates the shoulder inward. A large leverage makes it possible to make these movements powerful, fast and strong, so it is important to train this muscle.
• Lesser thoracic is located under the greater – starts from the ribs and is attached to the shoulder blade. It is similar in shape to a flat triangle. Its functional feature is to move the scapula and pull it back and forth.
• Serratus anterior is located on the surface of the chest from the side, starting from the ribs and attaching to the scapula. Due to the abduction of the scapula, the muscle rotates the scapula and participates in raising the arm above the horizontal level.
• The subclavian is located directly in the clavicle area. This muscle is necessary to pull the clavicle down.

Deep muscles consist of:

• Intercostal muscles are of two types: internal and external. These muscles are attached to different parts of the ribs to ensure the normal process of exhalation and inhalation.
• The hypochondrium muscles are attached to the inside of the lower ribs. They differ from intercostal ones by uneven and rarer attachment of muscle bundles.
• The diaphragm is a muscular structure responsible for human breathing. It is mobile, consisting of a partition, which is located between the cavities of the chest and abdomen.

One of the important points of training at home is the question of how to pump up a woman’s chest so that it looks beautiful, symmetrical and becomes embossed. You need to work big muscles. And for this, it is necessary to strengthen the deltoid muscles (the outer contour of the shoulders) and the upper back, as well as to fully observe the technique of performing all exercises.

How to pump up a girl’s chest at home: basic exercises

If you don’t pay attention to this area while playing sports, a person will have difficulties over time. Any items that need to be carried somewhere, lifted to the top shelf, etc. (products from the store, a suitcase on an airplane, and so on) will turn into a real problem. Like a man, it is important for a woman to know how to build chest muscles at home, as they affect posture, the beauty of the back and the body as a whole.

Isometric Breast Contractions

Let’s start with a chest lift exercise that you can easily do at home. Its essence is the contraction of the chest muscle without flexion and extension of the arms. For exercise, you need a small towel. It’s simple – repeat the exercise at least three times a week and you will quickly achieve impressive results.

Technique:

1. Take the starting position – feet shoulder-width apart, hands with a towel extended forward.

2. Simultaneously stretch your arms out to the sides, contracting your chest muscles with short pauses.

3. Pull the towel tight and continue to stretch it to the sides with pulsating movements for three minutes.

Dynamic plank

The regular plank is also great for strengthening your abs and pumping up your chest at home, pulling it up. But dynamic variation makes it much more efficient.

Technique:

1. Take a starting position – lie parallel to the floor, put your hands shoulder-width apart, and your feet hip-width apart.

2. Squeeze your hips and glutes to keep your body and legs in a straight line, and then start lowering first one elbow and then the other.

3. Next, alternately stand up on your hands and return to the starting position.

How to quickly pump up your chest with push-ups at home

The case when there is no need to reinvent the wheel and stock up on sports equipment. You must have a mat, and you will only have to work with your own weight. Ordinary push-ups help to quickly pump up a girl’s breasts at home if you perform the exercise regularly. An additional bonus is the inflated muscles of the back and arms.

Start with three sets of 15 push-ups daily or every other day. As soon as the hands become stronger, you can increase the number to 20-25-30 and so on. So, let’s show you how to properly swing your arms and chest using push-ups.

Technique:

1. Lie on your stomach down on the floor, bending your arms at your sides and placing your palms down.

2. Raise your arms along with your torso, keeping your knees straight. The toes must be fixed on the floor.

3. Continue to rise until your arms are completely extended. For beginners, the “knee push-ups” option is suitable.

4. Then lower yourself down and return to the starting position. During push-ups, in no case lower your stomach or legs.

How to properly pump up a woman’s breasts on a horizontal bar

We offer the following simple option on how to pump up breasts at home or go to the nearest sports ground. Only to begin with, you need to prepare the muscles for exercises on the horizontal bar. In addition to the chest muscles, the arms and back are involved in pull-ups, which means they need to be strengthened.

• Come to the horizontal bar and hang on it so that you feel comfortable. Repeat for 10 seconds for 5 sets. Increase the time gradually up to a minute.
• First of all, for the horizontal bar, you need to prepare the back muscles. Do the boat exercise at home.

Technique:

1. Lie belly down on the floor.

2. Bend your knees and wrap your arms around the ankles.

3. Start rocking slowly, gradually increasing the speed.

4. Repeat 3 sets of 10 reps.

For beginners, a simplified version of pull-ups is suitable.

Technique:

1. Place a chair under the horizontal bar, carefully stand on it. It is necessary that the horizontal bar is at the level of the chin.

2. Then bend your arms at the elbows and legs at the knees and slowly lower yourself down with straight arms.

3. It is important to fix in this position for 20-30 seconds.

You can also do exercises on a low horizontal bar, where your feet will touch the ground very little. Another option for beginners is to pump your chest on the horizontal bar with a girlfriend or friend.

Technique:

Hang on the bar at the moment when the assistant from behind will hold your hips and reduce the load. But this does not mean that your partner should do everything for you – make every effort to pull yourself up.

How to build chest muscles: exercises with dumbbells

To complete these elements, you will need a projectile that can be bought at any sports store or ordered online. Pump up the chest muscles at home with dumbbells faster if you choose the right weight. Choose the weight so that the last repetitions in the approach are given with difficulty. But you can’t overload yourself, otherwise you can get injured at the very beginning of the journey.

Chest Press

Chest exercises with dumbbells are a great way to train your arms at home too. Choose shells that you can safely lift and perform three sets of 8-12 reps with them. The optimal weight for each dumbbell is 3, 4 and 5 kilograms. As soon as the muscles get stronger, do not rush to increase the weight, it is better to increase the number of repetitions.

Technique:

1. Lie on the floor with your back down and take dumbbells in your hands.

2. Lift the dumbbells up towards each other. The arms should be straightened at the point of contact of both dumbbells.

3. Then slowly lower your arms back and repeat as many times as needed.

Dumbbell Incline Press

Another dumbbell chest exercise for the home.

Technique:

1. Lie on the floor with a large soft pillow under your back.

2. Legs apart and arms in a bent position with dumbbells.

3. Slowly extend your arms and lift them up. In this exercise, the dumbbells should be parallel to each other.

4. Then slowly return your hands to the starting position. After a short pause, repeat the exercise. Do 10 reps for 4 sets.

Classic bench press

Many girls dream of pumping up the middle of the chest at home, and we will share how to do it. Try the following classic bench presses.

Technique:

1. Lie on your back without a pillow.

2. Bend your arms at the elbows and hold dumbbells in each.

3. Then raise your arms up, straightening them to the end.

4. Then return your hands to the starting position. Repeat 10 times with short pauses, do three sets.

How to pump up breasts at home with the help of massage

Not exactly a physical exercise, but also a very useful life hack on how to pump up a girl’s breasts at home. Many studies show that massage increases blood flow and stimulates collagen production, which means it improves the tone and elasticity of the breast skin.

Technique:

1. Place your left hand on the top of your right chest.
2. Gently squeeze the area with a rhythmic movement.
3. Then gradually lower your hand down and massage the outer, lower and inner parts.
4. Gently squeeze and unclench your chest alternately. At the end, with patting movements, go over the entire surface with your fingertips.

How to create a chest workout program at home

Planning is an important part of training and working out any muscle group. Start from the level of physical fitness and realistically assess your capabilities. If you haven’t done physical education for a long time and today you can only do a couple of push-ups, you shouldn’t torture your body. Gradually, the muscles will begin to get used to the load, and you will avoid injury if you do not try too hard right away.

Remember that the program for boys and girls is no different, and your femininity will not suffer if you follow it. According to the observations of fitness trainers, girls often focus on the muscles of the legs, and guys on the upper shoulder girdle. But this is not a panacea, and it is important to give a load to all muscle groups so that they develop harmoniously.

It is very important to do your pectoral exercises at home correctly. Technique comes first. The shoulder joint is less stable, the shoulder rests on muscles, ligaments and tendons. It is easy to damage it and forget about training for a long time. In addition to a smooth load, be safe: do not take too much weight and do everything at a measured pace. For example, stretch the muscle for three counts and contract for one count.

The ideal scheme would be from simple to complex. Concentrate on push-ups before you lie down on the barbell press or pick up dumbbells. In other words, prepare your body for more intense exercise. This is the only way to make progress in your studies.

Mistakes when doing chest exercises at home

Anything that is not followed from the above recommendations automatically becomes a miss. And since some girls show excessive zeal in an effort to pump up their breasts at home, we list the main mistakes that can harm health.

• Work at maximum pace on the very first day of training. Do more than twelve working approaches per muscle group. It makes no sense for beginners to equal experienced athletes, our muscles grow during the recovery period. And overload does not exactly contribute to this.
• Forget lagging muscles during exercise. Concentrating on one, the most effective, in our opinion, exercise, we miss the opportunity to pump up the chest competently and evenly. By the way, because of this, fatigue often sets in faster.
• Start chest training at home as a stooped person with a weak shoulder girdle. This approach can easily exacerbate existing deviations. First you need to prepare the muscles that will be involved in all chest strengthening exercises.
• Choose uncomfortable shoes and clothes for activities. These points are important in terms of compliance with safety regulations. Both should be comfortable: shoes with a hard flat sole and a comfortable top.
• Ignore the warm-up that prepares the body for chest exercises at home. Stretching is best, remember the physical education lessons at school. For warming up, shoulder turns, “mill”, rowing movements, swings with light dumbbells are good. This is necessary for the correct entry into the training rhythm and the exclusion of injuries.

Tatyana Lampa, fitness trainer

“For beginners who want to pump up their breasts at home, the most important thing is to master the technique. In the best case, the wrong muscle groups will be pumped, in the worst case, harm will be caused to health. It would be nice to do one or two workouts with a trainer to remember the nuances of movements when distributing the load. It is also important to work the muscles around the chest to support it, especially in the shoulders and back. One of the best bodyweight exercises are push-ups. Elements with weights well strengthen the upper chest and not only. With all the details and regular exercises, the chest muscles will be strengthened, posture will improve and shortness of breath will disappear.

How to pump up breasts at home: video

Tatiana Lampa gives recommendations on nutrition as additional advice.