What are the five vital organs in the human body. How do these organs function and contribute to overall health. Which organ systems support the vital organs. How can one maintain optimal organ health.

The Five Vital Organs: Cornerstones of Human Life

The human body is a complex machine, with numerous organs working in harmony to maintain life. Among these, five organs stand out as absolutely essential for survival. These vital organs are the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, and liver. Each plays a crucial role in keeping the body functioning, and any significant disruption to their operation can quickly become life-threatening.

While other organs, such as the gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach, are important for overall health, it is possible to survive without them or with artificial replacements. The five vital organs, however, are irreplaceable and indispensable for life.

Brain: The Body’s Control Center

The brain serves as the body’s command center, orchestrating countless functions and processes. Protected by the skull, this remarkable organ is responsible for creating, sending, and processing nerve impulses, thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations. The brain is divided into three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

• Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-order thinking, personality, and movement
• Cerebellum: Controls balance, coordination, and fine motor skills
• Brainstem: Regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Within these main divisions, several key components work together to form the central nervous system:

1. Medulla: Located in the lower brainstem, it helps control heart and lung function
2. Pons: Situated above the medulla, it aids in eye and facial movements
3. Spinal cord: Extends from the brain’s base, facilitating communication between the brain and body
4. Parietal lobe: Aids in object identification, spatial reasoning, and interpreting pain and touch signals
5. Frontal lobe: Involved in conscious functions, personality, and smell interpretation
6. Occipital lobes: Primarily responsible for interpreting visual signals
7. Temporal lobes: Play a role in speech, scent recognition, and short-term memory

The Heart: Pumping Life Through the Body

As the cornerstone of the circulatory system, the heart works tirelessly to pump blood throughout the body. This muscular organ collaborates with the lungs to oxygenate blood and distribute it to every cell in the body. The heart’s structure and function are intricate and fascinating.

Structure of the Heart

The heart consists of four chambers: two upper chambers called atria and two lower chambers called ventricles. Blood flows through these chambers in a specific sequence, ensuring that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain separate.

Four valves regulate blood flow within the heart:

• Tricuspid valve
• Pulmonary valve
• Mitral valve
• Aortic valve

These valves ensure that blood flows in the correct direction, preventing backflow and maintaining the heart’s efficiency.

The Heart’s Electrical System

The heart’s ability to beat rhythmically is due to its intrinsic electrical system. This system generates electrical impulses that cause the heart muscle to contract in a coordinated manner. The heart rate adjusts based on the body’s needs, increasing during exercise and decreasing during rest.

Lungs: Breathing Life into the Body

The lungs are essential for oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from the body. These spongy organs work in tandem with the heart to ensure that every cell receives the oxygen it needs to function.

Structure and Function of the Lungs

The respiratory system consists of several key components that work together to facilitate breathing:

• Trachea: The main airway that branches into the left and right bronchi
• Bronchi: Large airways that extend into the lungs and branch into smaller bronchioles
• Bronchioles: Tiny airways that end in clusters of air sacs called alveoli
• Alveoli: Microscopic air sacs where gas exchange occurs between the air and bloodstream

When we inhale, air travels through this network of airways, eventually reaching the alveoli. Here, oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream while carbon dioxide is removed. This oxygenated blood then returns to the heart to be pumped throughout the body.

Kidneys: The Body’s Natural Filtration System

The kidneys are bean-shaped organs located in the lower back, responsible for filtering waste products from the blood and maintaining fluid balance in the body. These vital organs perform several crucial functions that keep our internal environment stable.

Key Functions of the Kidneys

1. Waste removal: Filtering waste products and excess substances from the blood
2. Fluid balance: Regulating the amount of water and electrolytes in the body
3. Blood pressure control: Producing hormones that help regulate blood pressure
4. Red blood cell production: Stimulating the production of red blood cells through the hormone erythropoietin
5. Vitamin D activation: Converting vitamin D into its active form, which is essential for bone health

While it is possible to survive with only one kidney, having both ensures optimal filtration and overall health.

Liver: The Body’s Chemical Processing Plant

The liver is the largest internal organ and performs over 500 vital functions. This remarkable organ plays a crucial role in metabolism, detoxification, and the production of essential proteins and chemicals.

Essential Functions of the Liver

• Protein synthesis: Producing essential proteins, including those necessary for blood clotting
• Bile production: Secreting bile to aid in the digestion of fats
• Detoxification: Breaking down and removing toxins from the blood
• Glucose regulation: Storing and releasing glucose to maintain blood sugar levels
• Cholesterol production: Synthesizing cholesterol, which is necessary for cell membranes and hormone production
• Vitamin and mineral storage: Storing vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12, as well as iron and copper

The liver’s ability to regenerate is remarkable, allowing it to recover from damage and maintain its critical functions.

Organ Systems: Supporting the Vital Organs

While the five vital organs are crucial for survival, they do not function in isolation. Various organ systems work together to support these vital organs and maintain overall health.

Key Organ Systems

1. Nervous system: Coordinates body functions and processes information
2. Circulatory system: Transports blood, nutrients, and oxygen throughout the body
3. Respiratory system: Facilitates gas exchange between the air and bloodstream
4. Digestive system: Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients
5. Endocrine system: Produces hormones that regulate various body functions
6. Immune system: Defends the body against pathogens and foreign substances
7. Skeletal system: Provides structure and protection for internal organs
8. Muscular system: Enables movement and supports posture
9. Integumentary system: Protects the body from external threats and regulates temperature

These systems work in harmony to support the vital organs and maintain homeostasis within the body.

Maintaining Optimal Organ Health

Keeping our vital organs healthy is essential for overall well-being and longevity. By adopting certain lifestyle habits and making informed choices, we can support the function of these crucial organs and reduce the risk of disease.

Tips for Promoting Organ Health

• Eat a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins
• Stay hydrated by drinking adequate water throughout the day
• Exercise regularly to improve cardiovascular health and maintain a healthy weight
• Get sufficient sleep to allow the body to repair and regenerate
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques, meditation, or yoga
• Avoid smoking and limit alcohol consumption
• Attend regular check-ups and screenings to detect potential issues early
• Practice good hygiene to prevent infections and support the immune system
• Limit exposure to environmental toxins and pollutants
• Stay mentally active through learning, socializing, and engaging in hobbies

By implementing these strategies, we can support the health of our vital organs and promote overall well-being.

The Interconnectedness of Vital Organs

While we’ve explored each vital organ individually, it’s crucial to understand that these organs do not function in isolation. The human body is a complex, interconnected system where each organ relies on the others to maintain optimal health and function.

Examples of Organ Interdependence

1. Brain-Heart Connection: The brain regulates heart rate and blood pressure, while the heart ensures a constant supply of oxygenated blood to the brain.
2. Lung-Heart Synergy: The lungs oxygenate blood, which the heart then pumps throughout the body.
3. Liver-Kidney Cooperation: The liver processes toxins, which the kidneys then filter out of the blood.
4. Brain-Liver Glucose Regulation: The brain signals the liver to release or store glucose, maintaining blood sugar levels.
5. Heart-Kidney Blood Pressure Control: The kidneys produce hormones that help regulate blood pressure, which affects heart function.

This interconnectedness highlights the importance of maintaining overall health, as a problem with one vital organ can have far-reaching effects on the others.

Technological Advancements in Organ Health

Medical science has made significant strides in understanding and treating organ-related diseases. Innovations in technology have opened up new possibilities for diagnosis, treatment, and even organ replacement.

Cutting-edge Developments

• Artificial Organs: Development of mechanical hearts, dialysis machines, and other artificial organ systems
• 3D Bioprinting: Creating tissue and potentially whole organs using 3D printing technology
• Organ-on-a-Chip: Miniature models of human organs for drug testing and disease research
• Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic defects to treat or prevent organ diseases
• Stem Cell Therapy: Using stem cells to regenerate damaged organ tissue
• Nanotechnology: Developing microscopic devices for targeted drug delivery and organ repair
• Organ Transplantation Advancements: Improving techniques and anti-rejection medications

These advancements offer hope for individuals with organ failure or chronic diseases, potentially extending and improving quality of life.

The Impact of Lifestyle on Vital Organ Health

Our daily choices and habits have a profound impact on the health of our vital organs. Understanding this relationship can empower individuals to make informed decisions that promote longevity and well-being.

Lifestyle Factors Affecting Organ Health

1. Diet: A balanced diet supports organ function, while poor nutrition can lead to organ damage
2. Exercise: Regular physical activity strengthens the heart, improves lung capacity, and supports overall organ health
3. Sleep: Adequate sleep allows for organ repair and regeneration
4. Stress Management: Chronic stress can negatively impact all vital organs
5. Substance Use: Smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and drug use can severely damage vital organs
6. Environmental Exposure: Pollution and toxins can harm organ function over time
7. Hydration: Proper hydration is essential for kidney function and overall organ health

By making positive lifestyle changes, individuals can significantly reduce their risk of organ-related diseases and promote overall health.

Future Directions in Vital Organ Research

As our understanding of human anatomy and physiology continues to evolve, researchers are exploring new frontiers in vital organ research. These advancements hold the potential to revolutionize our approach to organ health and disease treatment.

Promising Areas of Research

• Personalized Medicine: Tailoring treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup and organ function
• Organ Regeneration: Developing techniques to stimulate natural organ repair and regeneration
• Artificial Intelligence in Diagnostics: Using AI to improve early detection of organ diseases
• Microbiome Research: Understanding the role of gut bacteria in organ health
• Xenotransplantation: Exploring the possibility of using animal organs for human transplantation
• Epigenetics: Studying how environmental factors influence gene expression and organ function
• Organ Preservation Techniques: Improving methods to keep organs viable for transplantation

These areas of research offer exciting possibilities for the future of organ health and disease treatment, potentially leading to breakthroughs that could extend and improve the quality of human life.

Diagram and all you need to know

The five vital organs in the human body are the brain, the heart, the lungs, the kidneys, and the liver. Other organs include the gallbladder, the pancreas, and the stomach. Organ systems, such as the nervous system, support these organs.

Keep reading to learn more about the organs of the body, the various organ systems, and some guidelines on how to maintain optimum health.

The interactive body map below shows the organs of the body and which systems they play a role in. Click on the map to learn more.

The vital organs are those that a person needs to survive. A problem with any of these organs can quickly become life threatening.

It is not possible to live without these organs. That said, in the case of the paired kidneys and lungs, a person can live without one of the pair.

The sections below will look at the five vital organs in more detail.

Brain

The brain is the body’s control center. It forms the core of the central nervous system by creating, sending, and processing nerve impulses, thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and more.

The skull encloses the brain, protecting it from injury.

Neurologists are doctors who study the nervous system. Over time, they have identified numerous parts of the brain, including systems within the brain that function similarly to independent organs.

The brain is made up of three main subparts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem. Within these areas, there are several key components of the brain that, together with the spinal cord, comprise the central nervous system.

The major areas of the central nervous system include:

• The medulla: This is the lowest part of the brainstem. It helps control heart and lung function.
• The pons: Located above the medulla in the brainstem, this area helps control eye and facial movement.
• The spinal cord: Extended from the base of the brain and down the center of the back, the spinal cord helps with many automatic functions, such as reflexes. It also sends messages to and from the brain.
• The parietal lobe: Situated in the middle of the brain, the parietal lobe supports the identification of objects and spatial reasoning. It also plays a role in interpreting pain and touch signals.
• The frontal lobe: The frontal lobe, which is located in the front of the head, is the largest section of the brain. It plays a role in many conscious functions, including personality and movement. It also helps the brain interpret smells.
• The occipital lobes: Positioned near the back of the brain, the occipital lobe primarily interprets vision signals.
• The temporal lobes: Located on either side of the brain, the temporal lobes play a role in numerous functions, including speech, scent recognition, and short-term memory.

The brain’s two halves are called the right and left hemispheres. The corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres.

Heart

The heart is the most important organ of the circulatory system, which helps deliver blood to the body. It works with the lungs to add oxygen to blood and pump this freshly oxygenated blood through the blood vessels and around the body.

The heart also has an electrical system within. Electrical impulses within the heart help ensure that it beats with a consistent rhythm and proper rate.

The heart rate increases when the body needs more blood, such as during intense exercise. It decreases during times of rest.

The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles.

Blood flows into the right atrium from the veins of the heart and body (except the lungs), then it flows into the right ventricle. From there, it flows into the pulmonary artery, which has branches that reach the lungs. The lungs then oxygenate the blood.

This oxygenated blood travels from the lungs, through pulmonary veins that lead back and join together, to the left atrium, and then through the left ventricle. From there, the heart pumps the blood through an artery that branches to distribute blood to itself and other body parts (except the lungs).

The heart has four valves that ensure that blood flows in the right direction. The heart valves are:

• the tricuspid valve
• the pulmonary valve
• the mitral valve
• the aortic valve

Learn more about the heart here.

Lungs

The lungs work with the heart to oxygenate blood. They do this by filtering the air a person breathes, then removing excess carbon dioxide in exchange for oxygen.

Several parts of the lungs help the body take in air, filter it, and then oxygenate the blood. These are:

• The left and right bronchi: The trachea splits into these tubes, which extend into the lungs and have branches. These smaller bronchi split into even smaller tubes called bronchioles.
• The alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles. They work like balloons, expanding when a person inhales and contracting when they exhale.
• The blood vessels: There are numerous blood vessels in the lungs for carrying blood to and from the heart.

With extensive medical care, a person can live without one lung, but they cannot survive with no lungs.

The diaphragm, which is a thick band of muscle directly under the lungs, helps the lungs expand and contract when a person breathes.

Learn more about the lungs here.

Liver

The liver is the most important organ of the metabolic system. It helps convert nutrients into usable substances, detoxifies certain substances, and filters blood coming from the digestive tract through a vein before it joins venous blood flow from other parts of the body. Oxygenated blood reaches the liver via an artery.

The majority of liver mass is in the upper right side of the abdomen, just under the rib cage.

The liver plays many roles in digestion and filtering the blood, including:

• producing bile
• helping the body filter out toxic substances, including alcohol, drugs, and harmful metabolites
• regulating blood levels of various important chemicals, including amino acids
• making cholesterol
• removing some bacteria from the blood
• making some immune factors
• clearing bilirubin from the blood
• regulating the process of blood clotting, so that a person does not bleed too much and does not develop dangerous blood clots

The liver partners with the gallbladder to deliver bile to the small intestine. The liver pours bile into the gallbladder, which then stores and later releases the bile when the body needs it to help with digestion.

A person can live without portions of their liver, but the liver itself is vital for life.

Learn more about the liver here.

Kidneys

The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs, and each is about the size of a fist. They are located on either side of the back, protected inside of the lower part of the rib cage. They help filter blood and remove waste from the body.

Blood flows from the renal artery into the kidneys. Each kidney contains about a million tiny units for filtration known as nephrons. They help filter waste to the urine and then return the filtered blood to the body through the renal vein.

The kidneys also produce urine when they remove waste from the blood. Urine flows out of the kidneys through the ureters, then down to the urinary bladder.

A person can live with just one kidney. When a person is experiencing severe kidney failure, dialysis can filter the blood until they get a kidney transplant or their kidney recovers some function. Some people need to undergo hemodialysis long term.

Learn more about the kidneys here.

Non-vital organs are those that a person can survive without. However, this does not mean that conditions affecting these organs are never life threatening or dangerous. Many infections and cancers in non-vital organs are life threatening, especially without prompt treatment.

Injuries to non-vital organs may also affect vital organs, such as when a gallstone undermines liver function.

The sections below will outline the body’s non-vital organs in more detail.

Gallbladder

Small and pear shaped, the gallbladder sits in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, just under the liver. It contains cholesterol, bile salts, bile, and bilirubin.

In a healthy person, the liver releases bile into the gallbladder, which the gallbladder stores and then releases to travel down the common bile duct into the small intestine to aid digestion.

However, some people develop gallstones that block the gallbladder or biliary tree, causing intense pain and interfering with digestion. Also, this can sometimes interfere with liver or pancreas function.

Learn about some potential gallbladder issues here.

Pancreas

Located in the upper left portion of the abdomen, the pancreas has two important roles: It functions as both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.

As an exocrine gland, the pancreas produces enzymes a person needs to help digest their food and convert it into energy. Those enzymes include amylase, lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin.

In its role as an endocrine gland, the pancreas also produces and releases insulin, which helps the body remove glucose from the blood and convert it into energy.

Problems with insulin can lead to a dangerously high level of blood glucose and the onset of diabetes.

The pancreas also produces and releases glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels.

The main pancreatic duct connects to the common bile duct, which flows from the liver and gallbladder. Therefore, problems within the biliary tree, liver, or gallbladder may also affect the pancreas.

Learn more about the pancreas here.

Stomach

The stomach is a J shaped organ near the top of the abdomen.

Food begins its journey to the stomach soon after a person swallows. The food moves down from the throat and into the esophagus. The stomach is located at the end of the esophagus.

The muscles of the stomach help it break down and digest food. Within its lumen lining, certain regions of the stomach also produce enzymes that help digest food. The enzyme pepsin, for example, breaks down proteins so that they can become amino acids.

The stomach also helps store chyme until it moves to the intestines. Chyme refers to food that has mixed with stomach secretions.

Anatomists usually divide the stomach into five subparts. These are:

• The cardia: Located just beneath the esophagus, this portion of the stomach includes the cardiac sphincter. The sphincter prevents food from flowing back up the esophagus or into the mouth.
• The fundus: This is situated to the left of the cardia and underneath the diaphragm.
• The body: Food begins breaking down in the body, which is also the largest part of the stomach.
• The antrum: This is the lower part of the stomach. It contains partially digested food before it flows to the small intestine.
• The pylorus: This portion of the stomach connects to the small intestine. It includes a muscle called the pyloric sphincter, which controls when and how much stomach content flows into the small intestine.

Intestines

The intestines are a group of tubes that help filter out waste, absorb water and certain electrolytes, and digest food.

Partially digested food first travels through the small intestine, which comprises three parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Most digestion and absorption of food happens here.

Food then becomes feces as it travels within and through the large intestine. This begins with the cecum, extends to the rest of colon, and ends with the rectum. The rectum is the last stop for feces before expulsion occurs from the anus.

Doctors usually list dozens of organs, though the definition of an organ varies from expert to expert. Most organs play a role in organ systems, which work together to perform specific functions.

The sections below will outline the body’s organ systems in more detail.

Nervous system

The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system, which works to process and send nerve signals, interpret information, and produce conscious thought.

The portion of nervous system that communicates with the central nervous system is called the peripheral nervous system. Overall, the peripheral and central nervous systems also include an extensive network of neurons. Located throughout the body, these fibrous bundles send information about sensation, temperature, and pain.

The nervous system helps the body regulate every function, including every other organ system.

For instance, the stomach releases the hormone ghrelin, which signals to the brain that it is time to eat. This causes feelings of hunger and encourages a person to eat, which leads to the beginning of the process of digestion.

The nervous system integrates with virtually every other part of the body. For example, nerve fibers in the hand tell the brain when there is an injury in that area.

Meanwhile, nerves in the skin relay information about external temperature. This may cause the brain to initiate involuntary responses that control body temperature, such as sweating or shivering.

Also, other nerves interact with muscle, which helps coordinate movement.

Learn more about the central nervous system here.

Reproductive system

The reproductive system includes the organs that enable a person to reproduce and experience sexual pleasure. In females, the reproductive system also supports the growth of a fetus.

The reproductive system works closely with other organs and organ systems. For example, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland help regulate the production and release of hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.

The male reproductive system organs include:

• the testes
• the epididymis
• the vas deferens
• the ejaculatory ducts
• the prostate gland
• the seminal vesicles
• the penis
• the bulbourethral glands

The female reproductive system organs include:

• the mammary glands in the breasts
• the ovaries
• the fallopian tubes
• the uterus
• the vagina
• the vulva
• the clitoris
• a system of various glands, such as the Bartholin glands, which help lubricate the vagina
• the cervix

Skin

The skin is the body’s largest organ. It is part of the integumentary system, which includes skin, hair, nails, and fat.

The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature, protect the body from dangerous pathogens, make vitamin D from sunlight, and provide sensory input.

The skin comprises three layers:

• The epidermis: This is the outer layer of skin. It contains three types of cells. Squamous cells are the outer layer of skin, which the body constantly sheds. Basal cells are the next layer, located under the squamous cells. Melanocytes produce melanin, which is skin pigment. The more melanin the melanocytes produce, the darker a person’s skin is.
• The dermis: This is the middle layer of skin, located under the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, nerves, sebaceous glands, and fibroblasts. A flexible protein called collagen holds the dermis together.
• The subcutaneous fat layer: This is the deepest layer of the skin. It helps keep the body warm and reduces the risk of injury by absorbing heavy blows.

Muscular system

The muscular system includes a vast network of muscles. There are three types of muscles:

• Skeletal muscles: These are voluntary muscles, which means that a person can decide when to move them. The biceps and triceps are examples of skeletal muscles.
• Cardiac muscles: These are involuntary muscles that help the heart pump blood.
• Smooth muscles: These are also involuntary muscles. Smooth muscles line the bladder, intestines, and stomach.

Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a network of glands throughout the body. These glands release important chemicals called hormones, which help regulate the function of virtually every organ and organ system in the body.

For example, progesterone helps regulate the menstrual cycle and plays an important role in sustaining a pregnancy.

The endocrine system includes several major glands, including:

• the pancreas
• the thyroid
• the adrenal glands
• the pituitary
• the parathyroid
• the thyroid
• the hypothalamus
• the pineal gland
• the ovaries
• the testes

Immune system

The immune system helps the body prevent infections and fights them off when they do occur.

Many organs play a role in the immune system. For example, the skin prevents dangerous pathogens from entering the body, and the salivary glands release saliva that can help break down some dangerous sources of infection in food.

The lymphatic system plays a key role in the immune system by releasing lymphocytes that fight disease. There are many lymph nodes throughout the body. Some people notice that their lymph nodes enlarge when they get sick.

Digestive system

The digestive system is the group of organs that digest food, as well as the various structures within that release substances to aid digestion and absorption.

It includes:

• the mouth
• the esophagus
• the salivary glands
• the gallbladder
• the liver
• the pancreas
• the stomach
• the small and large intestines
• the appendix
• the rectum
• the anus

Circulatory system

The circulatory system includes the many blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body. It includes veins, arteries, capillaries, venules, and arterioles.

The lymphatic system is also part of the circulatory system. It helps maintain the body’s balance of fluid by collecting excess fluid and other particles from the blood. Lymph nodes are present within this system.

Each organ in the body is its own complex system, made up of numerous smaller parts. Many organs also depend on several other body parts. For example, to properly breathe, the lungs must work with the nose, mouth, throat, windpipe, and sinuses.

This complexity of each organ and organ system means that some doctors choose to specialize in a single organ or organ system. For example, cardiologists treat heart issues, while pulmonologists study the lungs.

Anyone who thinks that they have a problem with one of their organs or organ systems should see a specialist or ask a healthcare provider for a referral.

Diagram and all you need to know

The five vital organs in the human body are the brain, the heart, the lungs, the kidneys, and the liver. Other organs include the gallbladder, the pancreas, and the stomach. Organ systems, such as the nervous system, support these organs.

Keep reading to learn more about the organs of the body, the various organ systems, and some guidelines on how to maintain optimum health.

The interactive body map below shows the organs of the body and which systems they play a role in. Click on the map to learn more.

The vital organs are those that a person needs to survive. A problem with any of these organs can quickly become life threatening.

It is not possible to live without these organs. That said, in the case of the paired kidneys and lungs, a person can live without one of the pair.

The sections below will look at the five vital organs in more detail.

Brain

The brain is the body’s control center. It forms the core of the central nervous system by creating, sending, and processing nerve impulses, thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and more.

The skull encloses the brain, protecting it from injury.

Neurologists are doctors who study the nervous system. Over time, they have identified numerous parts of the brain, including systems within the brain that function similarly to independent organs.

The brain is made up of three main subparts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem. Within these areas, there are several key components of the brain that, together with the spinal cord, comprise the central nervous system.

The major areas of the central nervous system include:

• The medulla: This is the lowest part of the brainstem. It helps control heart and lung function.
• The pons: Located above the medulla in the brainstem, this area helps control eye and facial movement.
• The spinal cord: Extended from the base of the brain and down the center of the back, the spinal cord helps with many automatic functions, such as reflexes. It also sends messages to and from the brain.
• The parietal lobe: Situated in the middle of the brain, the parietal lobe supports the identification of objects and spatial reasoning. It also plays a role in interpreting pain and touch signals.
• The frontal lobe: The frontal lobe, which is located in the front of the head, is the largest section of the brain. It plays a role in many conscious functions, including personality and movement. It also helps the brain interpret smells.
• The occipital lobes: Positioned near the back of the brain, the occipital lobe primarily interprets vision signals.
• The temporal lobes: Located on either side of the brain, the temporal lobes play a role in numerous functions, including speech, scent recognition, and short-term memory.

The brain’s two halves are called the right and left hemispheres. The corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres.

Heart

The heart is the most important organ of the circulatory system, which helps deliver blood to the body. It works with the lungs to add oxygen to blood and pump this freshly oxygenated blood through the blood vessels and around the body.

The heart also has an electrical system within. Electrical impulses within the heart help ensure that it beats with a consistent rhythm and proper rate.

The heart rate increases when the body needs more blood, such as during intense exercise. It decreases during times of rest.

The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles.

Blood flows into the right atrium from the veins of the heart and body (except the lungs), then it flows into the right ventricle. From there, it flows into the pulmonary artery, which has branches that reach the lungs. The lungs then oxygenate the blood.

This oxygenated blood travels from the lungs, through pulmonary veins that lead back and join together, to the left atrium, and then through the left ventricle. From there, the heart pumps the blood through an artery that branches to distribute blood to itself and other body parts (except the lungs).

The heart has four valves that ensure that blood flows in the right direction. The heart valves are:

• the tricuspid valve
• the pulmonary valve
• the mitral valve
• the aortic valve

Learn more about the heart here.

Lungs

The lungs work with the heart to oxygenate blood. They do this by filtering the air a person breathes, then removing excess carbon dioxide in exchange for oxygen.

Several parts of the lungs help the body take in air, filter it, and then oxygenate the blood. These are:

• The left and right bronchi: The trachea splits into these tubes, which extend into the lungs and have branches. These smaller bronchi split into even smaller tubes called bronchioles.
• The alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles. They work like balloons, expanding when a person inhales and contracting when they exhale.
• The blood vessels: There are numerous blood vessels in the lungs for carrying blood to and from the heart.

With extensive medical care, a person can live without one lung, but they cannot survive with no lungs.

The diaphragm, which is a thick band of muscle directly under the lungs, helps the lungs expand and contract when a person breathes.

Learn more about the lungs here.

Liver

The liver is the most important organ of the metabolic system. It helps convert nutrients into usable substances, detoxifies certain substances, and filters blood coming from the digestive tract through a vein before it joins venous blood flow from other parts of the body. Oxygenated blood reaches the liver via an artery.

The majority of liver mass is in the upper right side of the abdomen, just under the rib cage.

The liver plays many roles in digestion and filtering the blood, including:

• producing bile
• helping the body filter out toxic substances, including alcohol, drugs, and harmful metabolites
• regulating blood levels of various important chemicals, including amino acids
• making cholesterol
• removing some bacteria from the blood
• making some immune factors
• clearing bilirubin from the blood
• regulating the process of blood clotting, so that a person does not bleed too much and does not develop dangerous blood clots

The liver partners with the gallbladder to deliver bile to the small intestine. The liver pours bile into the gallbladder, which then stores and later releases the bile when the body needs it to help with digestion.

A person can live without portions of their liver, but the liver itself is vital for life.

Learn more about the liver here.

Kidneys

The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs, and each is about the size of a fist. They are located on either side of the back, protected inside of the lower part of the rib cage. They help filter blood and remove waste from the body.

Blood flows from the renal artery into the kidneys. Each kidney contains about a million tiny units for filtration known as nephrons. They help filter waste to the urine and then return the filtered blood to the body through the renal vein.

The kidneys also produce urine when they remove waste from the blood. Urine flows out of the kidneys through the ureters, then down to the urinary bladder.

A person can live with just one kidney. When a person is experiencing severe kidney failure, dialysis can filter the blood until they get a kidney transplant or their kidney recovers some function. Some people need to undergo hemodialysis long term.

Learn more about the kidneys here.

Non-vital organs are those that a person can survive without. However, this does not mean that conditions affecting these organs are never life threatening or dangerous. Many infections and cancers in non-vital organs are life threatening, especially without prompt treatment.

Injuries to non-vital organs may also affect vital organs, such as when a gallstone undermines liver function.

The sections below will outline the body’s non-vital organs in more detail.

Gallbladder

Small and pear shaped, the gallbladder sits in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, just under the liver. It contains cholesterol, bile salts, bile, and bilirubin.

In a healthy person, the liver releases bile into the gallbladder, which the gallbladder stores and then releases to travel down the common bile duct into the small intestine to aid digestion.

However, some people develop gallstones that block the gallbladder or biliary tree, causing intense pain and interfering with digestion. Also, this can sometimes interfere with liver or pancreas function.

Learn about some potential gallbladder issues here.

Pancreas

Located in the upper left portion of the abdomen, the pancreas has two important roles: It functions as both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.

As an exocrine gland, the pancreas produces enzymes a person needs to help digest their food and convert it into energy. Those enzymes include amylase, lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin.

In its role as an endocrine gland, the pancreas also produces and releases insulin, which helps the body remove glucose from the blood and convert it into energy.

Problems with insulin can lead to a dangerously high level of blood glucose and the onset of diabetes.

The pancreas also produces and releases glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels.

The main pancreatic duct connects to the common bile duct, which flows from the liver and gallbladder. Therefore, problems within the biliary tree, liver, or gallbladder may also affect the pancreas.

Learn more about the pancreas here.

Stomach

The stomach is a J shaped organ near the top of the abdomen.

Food begins its journey to the stomach soon after a person swallows. The food moves down from the throat and into the esophagus. The stomach is located at the end of the esophagus.

The muscles of the stomach help it break down and digest food. Within its lumen lining, certain regions of the stomach also produce enzymes that help digest food. The enzyme pepsin, for example, breaks down proteins so that they can become amino acids.

The stomach also helps store chyme until it moves to the intestines. Chyme refers to food that has mixed with stomach secretions.

Anatomists usually divide the stomach into five subparts. These are:

• The cardia: Located just beneath the esophagus, this portion of the stomach includes the cardiac sphincter. The sphincter prevents food from flowing back up the esophagus or into the mouth.
• The fundus: This is situated to the left of the cardia and underneath the diaphragm.
• The body: Food begins breaking down in the body, which is also the largest part of the stomach.
• The antrum: This is the lower part of the stomach. It contains partially digested food before it flows to the small intestine.
• The pylorus: This portion of the stomach connects to the small intestine. It includes a muscle called the pyloric sphincter, which controls when and how much stomach content flows into the small intestine.

Intestines

The intestines are a group of tubes that help filter out waste, absorb water and certain electrolytes, and digest food.

Partially digested food first travels through the small intestine, which comprises three parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Most digestion and absorption of food happens here.

Food then becomes feces as it travels within and through the large intestine. This begins with the cecum, extends to the rest of colon, and ends with the rectum. The rectum is the last stop for feces before expulsion occurs from the anus.

Doctors usually list dozens of organs, though the definition of an organ varies from expert to expert. Most organs play a role in organ systems, which work together to perform specific functions.

The sections below will outline the body’s organ systems in more detail.

Nervous system

The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system, which works to process and send nerve signals, interpret information, and produce conscious thought.

The portion of nervous system that communicates with the central nervous system is called the peripheral nervous system. Overall, the peripheral and central nervous systems also include an extensive network of neurons. Located throughout the body, these fibrous bundles send information about sensation, temperature, and pain.

The nervous system helps the body regulate every function, including every other organ system.

For instance, the stomach releases the hormone ghrelin, which signals to the brain that it is time to eat. This causes feelings of hunger and encourages a person to eat, which leads to the beginning of the process of digestion.

The nervous system integrates with virtually every other part of the body. For example, nerve fibers in the hand tell the brain when there is an injury in that area.

Meanwhile, nerves in the skin relay information about external temperature. This may cause the brain to initiate involuntary responses that control body temperature, such as sweating or shivering.

Also, other nerves interact with muscle, which helps coordinate movement.

Learn more about the central nervous system here.

Reproductive system

The reproductive system includes the organs that enable a person to reproduce and experience sexual pleasure. In females, the reproductive system also supports the growth of a fetus.

The reproductive system works closely with other organs and organ systems. For example, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland help regulate the production and release of hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.

The male reproductive system organs include:

• the testes
• the epididymis
• the vas deferens
• the ejaculatory ducts
• the prostate gland
• the seminal vesicles
• the penis
• the bulbourethral glands

The female reproductive system organs include:

• the mammary glands in the breasts
• the ovaries
• the fallopian tubes
• the uterus
• the vagina
• the vulva
• the clitoris
• a system of various glands, such as the Bartholin glands, which help lubricate the vagina
• the cervix

Skin

The skin is the body’s largest organ. It is part of the integumentary system, which includes skin, hair, nails, and fat.

The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature, protect the body from dangerous pathogens, make vitamin D from sunlight, and provide sensory input.

The skin comprises three layers:

• The epidermis: This is the outer layer of skin. It contains three types of cells. Squamous cells are the outer layer of skin, which the body constantly sheds. Basal cells are the next layer, located under the squamous cells. Melanocytes produce melanin, which is skin pigment. The more melanin the melanocytes produce, the darker a person’s skin is.
• The dermis: This is the middle layer of skin, located under the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, nerves, sebaceous glands, and fibroblasts. A flexible protein called collagen holds the dermis together.
• The subcutaneous fat layer: This is the deepest layer of the skin. It helps keep the body warm and reduces the risk of injury by absorbing heavy blows.

Muscular system

The muscular system includes a vast network of muscles. There are three types of muscles:

• Skeletal muscles: These are voluntary muscles, which means that a person can decide when to move them. The biceps and triceps are examples of skeletal muscles.
• Cardiac muscles: These are involuntary muscles that help the heart pump blood.
• Smooth muscles: These are also involuntary muscles. Smooth muscles line the bladder, intestines, and stomach.

Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a network of glands throughout the body. These glands release important chemicals called hormones, which help regulate the function of virtually every organ and organ system in the body.

For example, progesterone helps regulate the menstrual cycle and plays an important role in sustaining a pregnancy.

The endocrine system includes several major glands, including:

• the pancreas
• the thyroid
• the adrenal glands
• the pituitary
• the parathyroid
• the thyroid
• the hypothalamus
• the pineal gland
• the ovaries
• the testes

Immune system

The immune system helps the body prevent infections and fights them off when they do occur.

Many organs play a role in the immune system. For example, the skin prevents dangerous pathogens from entering the body, and the salivary glands release saliva that can help break down some dangerous sources of infection in food.

The lymphatic system plays a key role in the immune system by releasing lymphocytes that fight disease. There are many lymph nodes throughout the body. Some people notice that their lymph nodes enlarge when they get sick.

Digestive system

The digestive system is the group of organs that digest food, as well as the various structures within that release substances to aid digestion and absorption.

It includes:

• the mouth
• the esophagus
• the salivary glands
• the gallbladder
• the liver
• the pancreas
• the stomach
• the small and large intestines
• the appendix
• the rectum
• the anus

Circulatory system

The circulatory system includes the many blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body. It includes veins, arteries, capillaries, venules, and arterioles.

The lymphatic system is also part of the circulatory system. It helps maintain the body’s balance of fluid by collecting excess fluid and other particles from the blood. Lymph nodes are present within this system.

Each organ in the body is its own complex system, made up of numerous smaller parts. Many organs also depend on several other body parts. For example, to properly breathe, the lungs must work with the nose, mouth, throat, windpipe, and sinuses.

This complexity of each organ and organ system means that some doctors choose to specialize in a single organ or organ system. For example, cardiologists treat heart issues, while pulmonologists study the lungs.

Anyone who thinks that they have a problem with one of their organs or organ systems should see a specialist or ask a healthcare provider for a referral.

Male infertility

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Unique 15-year experience in the Research Institute. BEFORE. Ott of the head of the clinic, associate professor Ignatovsky A.V.

Modern protocols for the examination and treatment of patients diagnosed with male infertility.

Male infertility is an urgent problem and acquires special medical and social significance both in our country and abroad. This is due to an increase in the frequency of diseases of the genital organs in men, an increase in developmental anomalies due to the influence of harmful environmental factors, allergization of the population, widespread and uncontrolled use of drugs and other factors. Violation of fertility leads to an increase in infertile marriages, divorces and a deterioration in demographic indicators. The proportion of infertile marriages in the world reaches 15%, and half of them are due to male infertility.

Causes of male infertility

Male infertility occurs as a result of numerous pathological processes in the body that cause dystrophic changes in the seminiferous tubules and interstitial tissue of the testicles, leading to the development of pathospermia (changes in the ejaculate) and impaired secretion of sex hormones.

Neuro-psychic factor of male infertility

In most cases, the CNS is the first among other body systems to react, providing significant changes in metabolism. This occurs most often with the involvement of the hypothalamic and pituitary intermediates.

Severe mental trauma, acting through the sexual center of the hypothalamus, often leads to oligo- or azoospermia.

Serious damage to the spermatogenic epithelium of the testicles that occurs with spinal cord injury also depends on the degree and location of the injury. After damage to the brain and spinal cord in the testicles, desquamation and vacuolization of germ cells, atrophy of the seminiferous tubules, suppression and cessation of spermatogenesis, and a decrease in the level of testosterone in the blood are observed. Importance is attached to the autonomic nervous system, which affects not only potency, but also spermatogenesis.

Congenital and genetic causes of male infertility

In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in the number of congenital pathological changes in the testicles, which have now reached 4-5%. Congenital and chromosomal anomalies in the development of the genital organs, leading to infertility in men, are described in the relevant sections of the monograph (cryptorchism, monorchism, anorchism, gonadal dysgenesis, etc.).

Genetic causes of infertility can be identified with appropriate cytogenetic testing.

Male infertility infectious factor

An important role in the causes of infertility is given to diseases such as mumps (mumps), typhus, typhoid fever, malaria, tuberculosis, brucellosis, sexually transmitted diseases, etc. The frequency of infertility in men after infectious diseases varies, according to various authors, from 8, 5 to 36%.

A special place in male infertility is mumps (mumps), which is often complicated by orchitis. This complication develops in the course of the disease itself. In this case, all testicular tissues are affected. But its parenchyma and the seminiferous tubules connecting the testicle with the head of the epididymis are subjected to especially pronounced violations.

Other infectious diseases (typhoid, paratyphoid, brucellosis, influenza, sepsis, etc.) are also complicated by orchitis, although less often. Particularly harmful is the toxic effect on the spermatogenic epithelium in case of several severe infectious diseases or chronic infections. At the same time, an important role in the pathogenesis of infertility is given to damage to the hematoorchial barrier and the development of autoimmune aspermatogenesis.

Exogenous intoxications and male infertility

Chronic and acute intoxications can have both a direct (primary) effect on the generative tissue of the testis, and an indirect (secondary) effect due to a violation of the barrier function of the liver, as well as a harmful effect on the nervous system. Poisons can also cause cellular hypoxia due to the competitive displacement of oxygen in the hemoglobin molecule and due to toxic damage to erythrocytes. Of no less importance, probably, is tissue hypoxia, which is closely associated with metabolic acidosis and the direct inhibitory effect of toxic substances on respiratory enzymes.

A number of professional and other intoxications have a harmful effect on the germinal epithelium of the testis. Therefore, it is recommended to pay special attention to the working conditions of men who have contact with industrial poisons, such as lead, mercury, manganese, phosphorus, carbon disulfide, ethyleneamine, ammonia, benzene, granosan, organic peroxides, etc. Constant work with these substances can gradually lead to damage. highly sensitive germinal epithelium of the testicles.

Habitual intoxications (alcohol, nicotine) and male infertility

In practical terms, the abuse of alcohol and tobacco is important. In persons suffering from alcoholism, pronounced changes in the ejaculate are determined, which are reduced to an increase in immobile and pathological forms of spermatozoa. Based on clinical and experimental studies in persons suffering from chronic alcoholism, fatty degeneration of the germinal epithelium and proliferation of connective tissue in the testis are observed.

Great importance is attached to the damaging effect of alcohol on the liver, which ultimately leads to a secondary loss of testicular function.

Nutritional factor and male infertility

An important role in the process of spermatogenesis is played by the food factor. Inadequate nutrition, complete or partial starvation early lead to changes in the testicles. These changes are especially significant in children and adolescents before puberty. Of particular importance are proteins, essential amino acids (arginine, tryptophan, lysine, methionine, leucine, etc.) and vitamins (A, C, D, E). A decrease in the content of these substances in food causes potency disorders, as well as generative function, due to changes in a number of the body’s defense systems, in particular the antioxidant system.

Endocrine disorders and male infertility

Violations of the function of the endocrine and other internal organs (thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pineal gland, pancreas), as well as diseases of the pituitary gland and other endocrine glands also cause changes in testicular function. These changes, when symptoms are not expressed, the underlying disease, as a rule, do not reach the degree of azoospermia, and with the severity of endocrine diseases, the question is usually raised not about restoring fertility, but about treating the underlying disease under the supervision of an endocrinologist.

Stagnation of venous blood in the genitals

Venostasis in the genital organs, which develops as a result of anomalies in the structure of the genitourinary venous plexus, congestive prostatitis and other diseases, can lead to hypoxia, impaired tissue respiration, changes in the physiological function of the testicles and accessory sex glands with the development of infertility.

Autoimmune lesions of the gonads

Important in trauma, ischemia, inflammation, exposure to toxic substances, as well as temperature influences, they attach a violation of the hematoorchial barrier. This can explain the violations of spermatogenesis in the unaffected testicle during the pathological process in the contralateral one.

Violation of the hematoorchial barrier. Accumulating more and more factors pointing to the important role of autoimmune processes in the pathogenesis of aspermatogenesis.

Injuries to the genital organs, depending on the nature and strength, can lead to irreversible changes in the structure and function of the testicles.

Operations on the testicular membranes and spermatic cord can adversely affect the testicular parenchyma and disrupt the formation of spermatozoa. These disorders are in most cases irreversible and end with atrophy of the seminiferous tubules.

In 2% of patients examined for infertility, a possible cause of the disease is hernia repair carried over in the past. Partial or total sterilization can be caused by trauma, which is possible during operations for a hernia, when in some cases there is a compression of the vessels that feed the testicles, or an accidental ligation of the vessels and vas deferens. They attach importance to venous stasis, which can occur after hernia repair, due to compression of the spermatic cord with tight sutures or scarring occurring in the inguinal ring, which leads to degeneration of testicular tissue and their atrophy.

Pathogenesis and classification of male infertility

According to modern concepts, to determine the nature of therapeutic measures for male infertility, the following main forms should be distinguished: secretory, excretory, autoimmune, combined and relative. Secretory infertility is caused by hypogonadism – a lack of levels of male sex hormones.

There are primary (congenital) and secondary (acquired) hypogonadism.

With primary functional failure of the testicles, the pathological process directly affects the testicles (congenital dysgenesis, cryptorchidism, orchitis, trauma).

With secondary hypogonadism, testicular function suffers as a result of damage to the hypothalamic-pituitary system, endocrine and other organs.

Secondary hypogonadism that occurs during various pathological processes in the hypothalamic-pituitary region (trauma, stress, neuroinfection, pituitary tumors, etc.) is due to a sharp decrease in the secretion of gonadotropic hormones, which are a powerful specific stimulator of testicular function, so secondary hypogonadism is called secondary hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.

Most researchers attribute testicular damage due to endocrine gland disease to secondary hypogonadism.

Hypospermatogenesis is clinically manifested by various degrees of oligo-azoospermia. If the pathological effect continues, then spermatogenesis stops at the stage of spermatocytes or spermatogonia, which corresponds to azoospermia. With atrophy of the spermatogenic epithelium (sustentocyte syndrome), aspermia is detected in the ejaculate.

Toxic inflammatory processes cause vacuolization and desquamation of the deep layers of the seminiferous tubules, their fibrous degeneration, sclerosis and atrophy of the testicular parenchyma. The primary lesion of the spermatogenic epithelium is accompanied by a decrease in the production of an estrogen-like substance (inhibin) in sustentocytes. A direct correlation of its content in the blood with the density of spermatozoa in the ejaculate was revealed.

Excretory infertility develops as a result of a disease or malformation of the urethra and accessory sex glands, obstruction of the vas deferens, aspermatism. In normal spermatogenesis, due to obstruction of the vas deferens, spermatozoa and spermiogenesis cells do not enter the ejaculate.

The more difficult the process, the greater the hormonal changes. The level of testosterone decreases, the content of gonadotropins (FSH, LH, LTH) and estrogen increases, which leads to impaired spermatogenesis, i.e. secretory infertility develops.

Bilateral obstruction of the vas deferens is manifested by aspermia – the absence of spermatozoa in the ejaculate.

Secretory aspermia from excretory aspermia in the presence of testicles of normal size in a patient can be distinguished by histological examination of a testicular biopsy.

Immune infertility may be the result of an immunological conflict between spouses (isoimmune), which occurs in response to the entry of ejaculate into the female genital tract, which has powerful antigenic properties. The conflict can be facilitated by idiosyncrasy, incompatibility in the ABO, HLA systems, disturbances in the state of humoral and central immunity, etc.

Autoimmune infertility occurs in men when the blood-testicular barrier is disturbed. Autoimmune processes can be accompanied by infectious diseases, orchitis, testicular injuries, varicocele, congestion (stagnation) in the genitourinary venous plexus, exogenous intoxications and other pathological processes.

The combined form of infertility was identified in 1972. In this case, a combination of secretory insufficiency caused by hormonal disorders of various nature, and an excretory component in the form of inflammatory changes in the accessory sex glands is observed. A thorough examination of the patient allows you to decide which of these factors prevails and where to start treatment.

Relative infertility is established when no pathological changes are detected during examination of a married couple. Perhaps this is due to the imperfection of the survey methods. With relative infertility, immunological causes, dysfunction of the central nervous system, sexual disorders in women, biological inferiority of germ cells are often found; other violations are also detected.

Diagnostics of male infertility

A marriage should be considered infertile if pregnancy does not occur within a year of normal life without the use of contraceptives.

Diagnosis of infertility in men should include anamnesis, examination of the ejaculate, examination of the endocrine function of the testicles, adrenal glands, hypothalamic-pituitary system, genetic testing, and, if necessary, testicular biopsy.

Particular attention is paid to diseases of the genital organs (prostatitis, vesiculitis, urethritis, colliculitis, epididymitis), which adversely affect generative and copulative functions. Note the conditions that contribute to the development of congestion in the pelvic organs (sedentary lifestyle, venous disease). Pay attention to the sexual development of the patient (age at the first sexual intercourse; the severity of libido, the nature of erection, orgasm, the frequency of sexual intercourse, their duration). It is important to establish the duration of the marriage, which was not accompanied by the wife’s pregnancy, the presence of children, whether they were born before or after the disease, the use of contraceptives.

With testosterone deficiency, weak muscle development, low performance, fatigue, insomnia, weakened beard and mustache growth, depression and impaired sexual potency are observed. The skin of such patients is tender and pale. Cold hands and feet indicate autonomic lability of the gland and seminal vesicles.

Ejaculate examination

Of decisive importance for the diagnosis of functional disorders of the gonads and judgments about the fertility of men are macroscopic, microscopic, biochemical and immunological studies of the ejaculate. Methods for obtaining ejaculate are unified by almost all researchers. Most often, ejaculate is obtained by masturbation.

It is recommended to examine the ejaculate after 4-5 days of abstinence. The ejaculate must be obtained completely, since different portions of it contain an unequal number of spermatozoa.

There are the following changes in the ejaculate:

Azoospermia is characteristic of the secretory form of infertility, in which there is inhibition of spermatogenesis at various stages. This is confirmed by the presence of certain cells of spermatogenesis in the ejaculate.

Aspermia is characteristic of the excretory form of infertility and is associated with bilateral obstruction of the vas deferens with normal generative testicular function. However, aspermia may also indicate the complete absence of spermatogenic epithelium. To establish the true cause of pathospermia in such cases, a testicular biopsy is indicated.

Teratozoospermia is characterized by a large number of degenerative forms of spermatozoa (less than 4%).

Asthenozoospermia is a fairly common pathological condition, with it only a violation of sperm motility is observed.

Aspermatism is the absence of ejaculate during intercourse. With true aspermatism (anejaculatory syndrome), sexual intercourse does not end with ejaculation, and therefore with orgasm. In false aspermatism, sexual intercourse ends with ejaculation and orgasm, but the eculate is thrown into the bladder.

Immunological studies of ejaculate. Detection of antibodies to spermatozoa. The spermatogenic epithelium is well protected from infectious and toxic effects by the hematotesticular barrier, which is broken in exceptional cases. Damage to the permeability or structure of this blood-testicular barrier, formed by the seminiferous tubules and testicular cells, plays a significant role in the development of autoimmune infertility.

Examination of prostate secretion. Microscopic examination of the secret of the prostate pay attention to the number of leukocytes and lecithin grains in the field of view. An increase in the number of leukocytes (over 10 in the field of view) and a decrease in the number of lecithin grains are characteristic of chronic inflammation of the prostate gland.

Testicular biopsy. Histological examination of the biopath of the testicles makes it possible to determine the degree of the pathological process or degenerative changes in it, the ability of the germinal epithelium to regenerate and judge the state of the interstitial tissue that characterizes the endocrine activity of the testicles. It allows to carry out differential diagnostics between obstructive and non-obstructive forms of aspermia and to resolve the issue of indications for surgical treatment of sterility. A biopsy is indicated for patients with aspermia and normally developed testicles. An open testicular biopsy is used. It is carried out on an outpatient basis in compliance with all asepsis rules.

Treatment of male infertility

General organizational measures. Smoking, alcohol consumption, uncontrolled use of drugs, which can in themselves cause a violation of the generative function, should be excluded. It is necessary to identify and eliminate the impact of harmful professional factors, as they can often complicate the situation. Sufficient rest is a sleep-period of time when the body restores its strength, the production of certain hormones normalizes. But during the week, it is important to set aside a few days for ADEQUATE physical activity – going to the gym, swimming, active physical activities on the street (skiing in winter, volleyball, tennis in summer) However, physical activity should not exhaust you – evaluate your well-being after exercise – there should be pleasant fatigue, the occurrence of dizziness, nausea – signs of excessive stress.

It is necessary to eliminate the factors that cause depression, the state of fear, excessive and prolonged physical exertion. All patients should be advised to do daily morning exercises, including exercises that improve breathing, increase the tone of the muscles of the pelvic floor, abdominal muscles, with low physical activity, an active motor regimen (walking, swimming, outdoor sports games) is necessary. With the physical nature of the work, rest is recommended with the inclusion of positive psycho-emotional stress.

Nutrition in all forms of infertility should be regular, food should contain a sufficient amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral salts. The diet should include foods rich in proteins containing essential amino acids: meat of animals, birds, sea fish, eggs, cottage cheese.

It is obligatory to use vegetable oil (sunflower, corn, olive, peanut). It is necessary to include in food fresh vegetables and fruits (beets, carrots, pumpkins, apricots, apples, citrus fruits, etc. ). Cooking salads in vegetable oil promotes the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Dried fruits serve as suppliers of mineral salts and trace elements. People with reduced nutrition are recommended to use honey, which contains vitamins, biologically active substances, microelements. It is forbidden to use excessively spicy dishes, seasonings, smoked meats.

When establishing a regimen of sexual activity, the following factors should be considered. Frequent sexual intercourse leads to a deterioration in the fertilizing ability of the ejaculate due to a decrease in the number and appearance of young forms of spermatozoa. Rare sexual intercourse leads to an increase in the number of spermatozoa, but contributes to their aging, which also impairs the fertilizing ability of the ejaculate. 3-5 day abstinence is the optimal period for the normalization of spermogram in a healthy man. You should also take into account the days of ovulation in women, since only during this period is conception possible. After intercourse, the wife should remain in bed with a raised pelvis for 30-40 minutes, which helps to preserve the seminal pool at the cervix.

General medical measures. Rational vitamin therapy is important for the normalization of the synthesis of sex hormones, the generative function of the testicles. Vitamins A, E, D, K, B1, B2 are prescribed. There are combined preparations: vitamin A with vitamin E in the form of aevital preparations containing a complex of essential vitamins, as well as vitamins and microelements, amino acids.

Secondary hypogonadism. Treatment of secondary (hypogonadotropic) hypogonadism consists in the use of gonadotropins, GnRH or drugs that stimulate their release. In this case, the use of chorionic gonadotropin and its analogues (choriogonin, pregnil, profazi, etc.) is indicated.

Therefore, its administration can be combined with the administration of androgens of adrenal origin, which have anabolic properties, or alternate with the administration of preparations containing testosterone. In the absence of a reserve androgenic function of the testicles, treatment with chorionic gonadotropin does not make sense. In this case, replacement therapy with testosterone and other androgens should be carried out.

With FSH deficiency, menopausal gonadotropin, folistiman, and anthrogon are used. They contain predominantly FSH, which activates spermatogenesis. By acting on the mitotic stage of spermatogenesis, FSH increases the number of seminal cells and stimulates their division to spermatocytes. You can combine the appointment of follicle-stimulating and luteinizing gonadotropins.

Spermatogenesis stimulants are fairly common. Most often, as part of complex treatment, Speman, Speman-forte are prescribed. The duration of such treatment is at least 3-6 months.

Buran sanatorium in the suburbs, Sergiev Posad – official website

04/27/2023

This is not the first time we have stayed at the resort. Despite the outdated infrastructure, I really like being in this place. Wonderful place, quiet, beautiful, relaxing from the bustle of the city. I would like to note the canteen workers, deliciously cooked, they update the trays with food on time, they clean the tables. All is clear. The resort has a beautiful swimming pool and spa. The rooms are clean, the linens are white, the beds and the sofa are comfortable. I would like to especially note the friendly attitude of all employees, from the checkpoint to the maids. Everywhere they meet with a smile, in the dining room, in the pool, in the spa, at the reception. It was nice to receive a birthday compliment at the SPA, to try a cedar barrel. Thanks to all the people who work here for their kindness. Our family enjoyed the weekend with you and will most likely come again. We wish you prosperity!

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04/05/2023

A report about one day of vacationers in the Buran boarding house.

Hello, the Lushin family is with you, we have been in the Buran sanatorium for the second day and have already forgotten our home, work, kindergarten (were completely disconnected), although we are in our hometown.

We got up early in the morning to have time for exercises, it would not hurt to cheer up in the morning, I thought so, but going up the stairs, after exercises, for breakfast, I realized that I was wrong, my legs clearly made themselves felt!)

After breakfast, we walked around the territory, breathed fresh air, which is so necessary for the brain and every cell of the body … We look at the clock, it’s time to send to a master class in painting.

It certainly has its own atmosphere: at first it turned out somehow clumsily and the hand wandered over the white canvas while in pencil. Then I took up acrylic paints and completely disconnected from the outside world)) I came to my senses when my stomach made itself felt (it would be time to have lunch already) … I really liked the resulting picture (somewhere far away, in my soul, maybe I’m an artist, but this not exactly)

After lunch we went to health-improving procedures:

1. We lay in a bath with pine needles (My first experience in this matter, and I want to say it’s magical, it came out like a newborn! I advise everyone! just sitting in a chair?!

Do not believe it, he could (my hero), he just told me what they did at the children’s master classes, and how much fun they had there, sometimes we devote little time to children, being at work all day, but they are waiting all day, to chat later in the evening, to be listened to, to share something intimate.