What are the main components of the endocrine system. How do these glands work together to regulate bodily functions. What hormones are produced by each gland and their effects on the body. How does the endocrine system maintain homeostasis.

The Endocrine System: An Overview of Hormone-Producing Glands

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones act as chemical messengers, regulating various bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Understanding the primary glands of the endocrine system is crucial for comprehending how our bodies function and respond to internal and external stimuli.

What are the main components of the endocrine system?

The endocrine system consists of several major glands, each with specific functions and hormone production. The primary glands include:

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Thymus
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Ovaries (in females)
• Testes (in males)

These glands work together in a coordinated manner to regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and stress response.

The Hypothalamus: The Master Controller of the Endocrine System

The hypothalamus, located in the brain, plays a crucial role in the endocrine system by acting as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, effectively controlling many bodily functions.

How does the hypothalamus regulate bodily functions?

The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining various physiological processes, including:

• Water balance
• Sleep-wake cycles
• Body temperature
• Appetite and food intake
• Mood regulation
• Blood pressure control

By producing releasing and inhibiting hormones, the hypothalamus exerts control over the pituitary gland, which in turn influences other endocrine glands throughout the body.

The Pituitary Gland: The Master Gland of the Endocrine System

Often referred to as the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain. Despite its small size, it plays a vital role in regulating many other endocrine glands and their functions.

What are the two main parts of the pituitary gland?

The pituitary gland is divided into two main lobes:

1. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis): Produces and secretes several important hormones, including growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH).
2. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): Stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus, such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

These hormones regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproductive processes.

The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands: Regulators of Metabolism and Calcium Balance

Located in the neck, the thyroid and parathyroid glands play crucial roles in maintaining metabolic function and calcium homeostasis.

How do the thyroid and parathyroid glands affect the body?

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. The main thyroid hormones are:

• Thyroxine (T4)
• Triiodothyronine (T3)

These hormones influence nearly every cell in the body, controlling how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins, and regulates sensitivity to other hormones.

The parathyroid glands, on the other hand, produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood and bones. This hormone is essential for maintaining strong bones, proper nerve and muscle function, and overall cellular health.

The Adrenal Glands: Stress Response and Hormone Production

The adrenal glands, located on top of each kidney, play a crucial role in the body’s stress response and produce several important hormones.

What are the main parts of the adrenal glands and their functions?

The adrenal glands are composed of two main parts:

1. Adrenal cortex (outer layer): Produces steroid hormones, including:
   • Cortisol (stress hormone)
   • Aldosterone (regulates blood pressure and electrolyte balance)
   • Small amounts of sex hormones (androgens and estrogens)
2. Adrenal medulla (inner layer): Produces catecholamines, including:
   • Epinephrine (adrenaline)
   • Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

These hormones help regulate metabolism, immune function, blood pressure, and the body’s fight-or-flight response to stress.

The Pancreas: Regulator of Blood Sugar and Digestive Functions

The pancreas is a unique organ that serves both endocrine and exocrine functions. As part of the endocrine system, it plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels and metabolism.

What are the main hormones produced by the pancreas?

The pancreas produces several important hormones, including:

• Insulin: Lowers blood sugar levels by promoting glucose uptake by cells
• Glucagon: Raises blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of glycogen into glucose
• Somatostatin: Regulates the release of other pancreatic hormones
• Pancreatic polypeptide: Helps regulate pancreatic secretions and appetite

These hormones work together to maintain proper blood sugar levels and support overall metabolic function.

The Reproductive Glands: Ovaries and Testes

The reproductive glands, also known as gonads, are responsible for producing sex hormones and gametes (reproductive cells). In females, these are the ovaries, while in males, they are the testes.

How do the reproductive glands contribute to the endocrine system?

The ovaries in females produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle, support pregnancy, and influence secondary sexual characteristics. They also contain egg cells for reproduction.

The testes in males produce testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, sperm production, and maintaining muscle mass and bone density.

Both the ovaries and testes are controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which regulates their hormone production and reproductive functions.

The Pineal and Thymus Glands: Lesser-Known but Important Endocrine Organs

While often overlooked, the pineal and thymus glands play significant roles in the endocrine system and overall body function.

What are the functions of the pineal and thymus glands?

The pineal gland, located in the brain, produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm). It may also play a role in the timing of puberty and seasonal breeding patterns in some animals.

The thymus, situated in the upper chest, is crucial for the development of the immune system, particularly in early life. It produces hormones that help T-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) mature and function properly, enhancing the body’s ability to fight infections and destroy abnormal cells.

As we age, the thymus gradually shrinks and is replaced by fatty tissue, but it continues to play a role in maintaining immune function throughout life.

Endocrine System Disorders: When Hormone Production Goes Awry

Disorders of the endocrine system can occur when glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, or when the body doesn’t respond properly to hormones. These conditions can have wide-ranging effects on health and well-being.

What are some common endocrine disorders?

Some frequently encountered endocrine disorders include:

• Diabetes mellitus (Types 1 and 2): Impaired insulin production or function
• Thyroid disorders: Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)
• Adrenal insufficiency: Inadequate production of adrenal hormones
• Growth hormone deficiency: Insufficient growth hormone production
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Hormonal imbalance affecting ovarian function
• Cushing’s syndrome: Excessive cortisol production
• Hypogonadism: Reduced function of the ovaries or testes

Diagnosis and treatment of endocrine disorders often involve measuring hormone levels, assessing symptoms, and sometimes performing imaging studies or genetic tests. Treatment may include hormone replacement therapy, medication to regulate hormone production, or in some cases, surgery to remove or repair affected glands.

The Interplay Between Endocrine Glands: A Complex Network of Communication

The endocrine system functions as a complex network, with glands and hormones interacting in intricate ways to maintain homeostasis and respond to the body’s changing needs.

How do endocrine glands communicate with each other?

Endocrine glands communicate through a system of feedback loops and hormone cascades. The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is a prime example of this communication:

1. The hypothalamus produces releasing or inhibiting hormones.
2. These hormones travel to the pituitary gland, stimulating or suppressing the release of pituitary hormones.
3. Pituitary hormones then act on target glands throughout the body, such as the thyroid, adrenals, or gonads.
4. The target glands produce their own hormones, which can feed back to the hypothalamus and pituitary, either increasing or decreasing further hormone production.

This complex system of communication ensures that hormone levels are tightly regulated and can respond quickly to changes in the body’s internal or external environment.

The Role of the Endocrine System in Maintaining Homeostasis

One of the primary functions of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis, the state of internal balance within the body. This involves regulating various physiological processes to keep them within optimal ranges.

How does the endocrine system contribute to homeostasis?

The endocrine system helps maintain homeostasis through several mechanisms:

• Blood sugar regulation: Insulin and glucagon from the pancreas work together to keep blood glucose levels stable.
• Electrolyte balance: Hormones like aldosterone from the adrenal glands help regulate sodium and potassium levels.
• Calcium homeostasis: Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin (from the thyroid) regulate calcium levels in the blood and bones.
• Body temperature control: Thyroid hormones influence metabolic rate and heat production.
• Fluid balance: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys.
• Stress response: Cortisol and adrenaline from the adrenal glands help the body respond to stressors.

By continuously monitoring and adjusting these various processes, the endocrine system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s internal stability and overall health.

The Future of Endocrine Research: Emerging Trends and Potential Breakthroughs

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to grow, researchers are exploring new avenues for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of endocrine disorders. These emerging trends hold promise for improving patient outcomes and advancing the field of endocrinology.

What are some exciting areas of current endocrine research?

Some promising areas of endocrine research include:

• Gene therapy: Targeting specific genetic mutations associated with endocrine disorders
• Artificial intelligence in diagnostics: Using machine learning algorithms to improve the accuracy and speed of endocrine disorder diagnosis
• Bioengineered hormone replacement: Developing more effective and longer-lasting hormone treatments
• Endocrine disruptors: Studying the impact of environmental chemicals on hormone function and developing strategies to mitigate their effects
• Circadian rhythm research: Exploring the connections between the endocrine system, sleep patterns, and overall health
• Gut-endocrine axis: Investigating the relationship between gut microbiota and endocrine function
• Personalized medicine: Tailoring endocrine treatments based on individual genetic and metabolic profiles

These research areas have the potential to revolutionize our approach to endocrine disorders and improve the lives of millions of people affected by hormonal imbalances and related conditions.

Anatomy of the Endocrine System in Children

General endocrinology – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

Last updated: July 19, 2021

Summary

Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system (i.e., the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenals, and gonads), metabolic diseases, and certain aspects of nutritional medicine. The endocrine glands are responsible for producing and secreting hormones, which influence the function of cells in certain tissues of the body. Hormone secretion is controlled by highly regulated pathways, the most important of which is the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. The hypothalamus secretes and stores nontropic hormones (e.g., ADH, oxytocin) and releasing hormones (e.g., TRH, CRH, GnRH). The pituitary gland is composed of the anterior pituitary, which secretes tropic hormones (e.g., ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH) and whose function is controlled by hypothalamic releasing hormones, and the posterior pituitary, which stores ADH and oxytocin. The gonads are the ovaries in female individuals and testicles in male individuals. Their function is controlled via the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, as well as the secretion of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis can result in the development of various endocrine disorders, which are classified according to the level of pathway disruption: primary (disorders of the peripheral endocrine gland), secondary (pituitary dysfunctions), and tertiary (hypothalamic disorders). An understanding of these hormone pathways is important for the diagnosis and management of endocrine disorders, particularly when interpreting changes in hormone levels and the results of suppression and/or stimulation tests.

For more information, see the articles “Thyroid gland and parathyroid glands” and “Adrenal gland.”

Overview of endocrinological diseases

This article focuses on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Other important structures, hormones, and metabolic diseases are discussed in their respective articles.

Basics of endocrinology

Hormones

Hydrophilic hormones (e.g., catecholamines) are stored in secretory granules and released when needed. Lipophilic hormones (e.g., adrenocortical steroid hormones) pass into the bloodstream once synthesized without being stored in cells.

Feedback control mechanisms

Hormone secretion is controlled by the following feedback mechanisms: ^[2]

• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback

Diagnosis of endocrine diseases

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland

• Anatomy
• Function
• Hormones
  • Inhibiting hormones
  • Releasing hormones

• Anatomy
• Function
• Hormones
  • Tropic hormones: act on endocrine glands to mediate their effects
  • Nontropic hormones: act directly on target-tissue cells

“B-FLAT”: Basophils secrete FSH, LH, ACTH, and TSH.

“PiG on Acid”: Prolactin and GH are secreted by Acidophils.

Hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Tropic hormones

Nontropic hormones

“No PRO-BLAM:” Derivatives of PROopiomelanocortin are Beta-endorphin, ACTH, and MSH.

Hypothalamic and pituitary drugs

Adrenal cortex

Thyroid gland

Gonads

Overview

Physiological effects of LH and FSH

Physiological effects of sex hormones

Feedback control mechanisms

Regulation of appetite and satiety

Overview

^[21][22][23]

Regulation of satiety

^[21][23]

Ghrelin makes you Gain weight. Leptin makes you Lose weight.

Appetite regulators

Hormones, glands and growth | GrowingUp

Many secondary growth disorders are caused by issues in the hormonal (endocrine) system. The endocrine system is made up of a number of glands that secrete hormones.

Glands and the hormones they release regulate many processes in the body; from growth, puberty, metabolism and reproduction, hormones play a role in almost everything we do. 

Glands involved in growth include:

• Pituitary – connected to the hypothalamus – this is known as a ‘master gland’ and is responsible for releasing and controlling a number of hormones. 
• Thyroid – located at the base of the neck. The thyroid releases thyroxine (T4) and  triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate the metabolism in the body and support the activity of the growth hormone, which cannot function without thyroxine.
• Adrenal – There are two adrenal glands, one above each kidney. The adrenal glands make several hormones, including cortisol. Cortisol plays a role in metabolism: it promotes the conversion of proteins and fats into glucose. Cortisol also inhibits growth.
• Pineal – Found at the base of the brain, this produces the hormone melatonin, which is involved in sleep regulation. 
• Thymus – This gland is found in your chest, just behind the breastbone (sternum) and between your lungs. It secretes hormones that are important during puberty and development of the immune system.
• Testes – These are found in men in the part of the body called the scrotum – the small ‘pouch’ just below the penis. The testes (which are part of the testicles) produce the sex hormone testosterone, which is important for the development of sperm, bone and muscle mass as well as secondary sexual characteristics such as facial and body hair.
• Ovaries – These are found in women and produce not only sex hormones but also eggs. These glands produce both oestrogen and progesterone, which are involved in female breast development, fat distribution in the hips and legs, as well as the development of reproductive organs and overall fertility. 

The pituitary: the  ‘master gland’ 

The pituitary is also known as the ‘master gland’. It is located just behind the bridge of the nose and is responsible for producing a number of hormones involved in growth. It also regulates the function of other glands (the adrenal, thyroid, testes and ovaries) some of which are directly or indirectly involved with growth processes. The pituitary gland is largely controlled by the hypothalamus, which is the part of the brain involved with control of the nerves and hormones throughout the body.

Hormones that the pituitary gland produces include:

• Growth hormone: regulates growth processes 
• Luteinizing hormone (LH): a type of sex hormone, released during puberty (and beyond). During this time it promotes development of sexual organs. Sex hormones cause a growth spurt during puberty.
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): A type of sex hormone. Released during puberty (and beyond). During this time it encourages the sexual organs to develop. Sex hormones cause a growth spurt during puberty.
• Thyroxine stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. 
• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol. 

Conditions affecting the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus and some of the other glands mentioned above can cause growth problems.

The endocrine system – 10 amazing glands

The thyroid gland is part of your endocrine

Endocrine
“relating to glands which secrete hormones or other products directly into the blood”

system. It may be helpful for people with a thyroid problem to understand which part the thyroid plays in the endocrine system.

Graphic of the male and female endocrine system

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones (chemical messengers). These hormones pass directly into the bloodstream to control metabolism

Metabolism
“the chemical processes within the human body”

, growth and sexual development.

The endocrine system consists of the following glands:

• hypothalamus
• pituitary gland

  Pituitary gland
  “the major endocrine gland, a pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain that is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands”

• pineal gland
• thyroid gland
• parathyroid glands

  Parathyroid glands
  “four small pea-sized glands located in the neck just behind the thyroid gland which control calcium levels in the bloodstream”

• adrenal glands
• pancreas

  Pancreas
  “a large gland behind the stomach, which secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum”

• thymus
• testes (male)
• ovaries (female)

The hormones produced by these glands travel to various organs, glands and tissues

Tissues
“groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a specific function”

in the body and communicate with them.   Once they have reached their particular organ

Organ
“part of the body that performs a special task such as heart and kidney”

or tissue they bind to specific proteins

Proteins
“plant or animal tissue”

on the surface of the cell. These proteins are called receptors

Receptors
“a specialised cell or group of nerve endings that responds to things such as hormones”

.   When they have bound to the receptor, this causes a response in that particular organ or tissue (they tell it what to do).

Sometimes things can go wrong in the endocrine system and various illnesses can be caused.

What the endocrine system’s glands do

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is part of the brain.  It receives messages from all over the body and keeps the body balanced by sending out messages to the Nervous System via the brain.  It also sends out hormone messages to the pituitary

Pituitary
“of or relating to the pituitary gland”

gland and helps to regulate the control of thirst and hunger.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is under the control of the hypothalamus and is connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk.  It has two lobes – the anterior

Anterior
“situated before or at the front”

lobe

Lobe
“a round projection or division such as ear lobe or the lobes of the thyroid gland”

and the posterior

Posterior
“situated behind or at the rear”

lobe.  

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces the following hormones:

• Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) which control the production of the sex hormones (oestrogen

  Oestrogen
  “the primary female sex hormone. Also known as estrogen ”

  and testosterone).  They also control the growth and release of the egg from the ovaries. In men, they control the production of sperm.

• Growth Hormone which controls growth.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

  Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
  “produced by the pituitary gland its role is to regulate the production of hormones by the thyroid gland”

  (TSH) which tells the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones.

• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

  Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
  “ACTH is made in the pituitary gland – it is needed for your adrenal glands to work properly and help your body react to stress”

  (ACTH) which tells the adrenals to release the hormone cortisol

  Cortisol
  “a steroid hormone that regulates a wide range of processes throughout the body, including metabolism and the immune response. It also has a very important role in helping the body respond to stress”

  .

• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH) which controls the production of melanin. Melanin is the substance that gives skin its colour.
• Prolactin (PRL) which stimulates the production of breast milk and is necessary for normal milk production during breastfeeding.

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces the following hormones:

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which controls water excretion by the kidneys.
• Oxytocin which causes the womb to contract during labour and plays a role in the production of breast milk.

Pineal Gland

The pea-sized pineal gland is near the centre of the brain. The pineal gland produces a hormone called melatonin. Melatonin is the hormone which is responsible for closing the body down ready for sleep. It is produced when it is dark so more is produced at night and in the winter. When nights are longer, the body makes more melatonin.  

It also affects reproductive development, thyroid and adrenal cortex functions.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small butterfly-shaped gland with two lobes. It is situated in the front of your neck, just below the Adams Apple.

The thyroid gland produces two main hormones which are very important for growth and development.  One is called thyroxine

Thyroxine
“the main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland. It is the inactive form”

(T4) and the other is called triiodothyronine

Triiodothyronine
“alternative name is T3. Triiodothyronine is the active form of the thyroid hormone, thyroxine”

(T3).  T4 is converted to T3 in the body’s cells and tissues.  T3 is an active hormone and is needed by all of the cells and tissues of the body.

The thyroid gland also produces another hormone called calcitonin, which works alongside parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone
“parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that regulates the serum calcium through its effects on bone, kidney, and intestine”

in the maintenance of calcium

Calcium
“a mineral found in many foods. The body needs calcium to maintain strong bones and to carry out many important functions. Almost all calcium is stored in bones and teeth, where it supports their structure and hardness”

levels in the blood.

Parathyroid Glands

These pea-sized glands are attached to the thyroid gland and produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) which controls blood calcium levels.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are situated at the top of the kidneys.  Each adrenal gland

Adrenal gland
“a small gland located on top of the kidney. The adrenal glands produce hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, the way the body uses food, the levels of minerals such as sodium and potassium in the blood, and other functions particularly involved in stress reactions”

is divided into two areas, the cortex and the medulla. Each area produces different hormones.

The cortex produces Corticosteroid hormones:

• Cortisol (also known as hydrocortisone

  Hydrocortisone
  “a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and used medicinally to treat inflammation resulting from eczema and rheumatism”

  ) is the main stress-buster of the body and controls the body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.

• Corticosterone helps to control the immune system

  Immune system
  “the organs and processes in the body that work together to resist infections”

  ’s inflammatory response (inflammation

  Inflammation
  “redness, swelling, pain, tenderness, heat, and disturbed function of an area of the body”

  ).

It also produces Mineralocorticoids such as Aldosterone

Aldosterone
“a corticosteroid hormone which stimulates absorption of sodium by the kidneys and so regulates water and salt balance”

, which helps to maintain sodium balance in the body and the maintenance of blood volume and blood pressure.

The cortex also produces Gonadocorticoids or sex hormones such as testosterone, oestrogen, DHEA

DHEA
”or dehydroepiandrosterone – a hormone produced by the body’s adrenal glands”

and progesterone

Progesterone
“an endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis of humans and other species”

in small amounts.

The medulla produces Adrenaline

Adrenaline
“a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that increases rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and prepares muscles for exertion”

and Noradrenaline

Noradrenaline
“a hormone which is released by the adrenal medulla, increasing blood pressure and heart rate, and by the sympathetic nerves and functions as a neurotransmitter”

in response to acute stress such as fright and anger.  These cause the heart to pump harder and the heart rate to increase. They also open airways into the lungs, increase blood flow to major muscle groups and enable the body to fight or run in a stressful situation.

Pancreas

The pancreas produces digestive enzymes and certain special cells which control blood sugar, producing the hormones insulin

Insulin
“a hormone produced in the pancreas which regulates the amount of glucose in the blood”

and glucagon

Glucagon
“a hormone formed in the pancreas which promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver”

.

Thymus

The thymus makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes. These white blood cells are part of the body’s immune system and help to fight infection.

Testes

The testes are two egg-shaped male reproductive organs.  They produce the hormone testosterone, which is responsible for the male characteristics of the body. Testosterone is needed for the production of sperm.  Men also produce a small amount of progesterone and oestrogen.

The Ovaries

The ovaries are two oval-shaped female reproductive organs.  They produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone, which are responsible for the female characteristics of the body.  Oestrogen strengthens bones and has a protective effect on the heart, and progesterone causes the womb’s lining to thicken ready for pregnancy.  The ovaries also produce small amounts of testosterone.

Date updated: 20/08/21 (V1.2)
Review date: 24/05/22

We rely on donations so that we can continue to support and campaign for people with thyroid and related conditions.   If you have found our information helpful, please make a donation or become a member.

Hypothyroidism Secondary – Hypothyroidism Secondary Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis

Affiliated: Hypothyroid |  Hypothyroidism | Hypothyroidism Primary | Hypothyroidism Secondary | Hypothyroidism Illustration

Hypothyroidism Secondary: Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis

Definition

What is Hypothyroidism Secondary?

Secondary hypothyroidism involves decreased activity of the thyroid caused by failure of the pituitary gland.

Alternative Names: Pituitary hypothyroidism

Causes, incidence, and risk factors:

The thyroid gland is an important organ of the endocrine system, located in the front of the neck just below the voicebox. The thyroid secretes the hormones thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin, which control body metabolism and regulate calcium balance. The secretion of T3 and T4 by the thyroid is controlled by an endocrine feedback system involving the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus (structures in the brain). Lowered levels of these thyroid hormones result in increased levels of pituitary and hypothalamic hormones. The reverse is also true — when levels of the thyroid hormones rise, pituitary and hypothalamic hormones fall back. This helps keep levels appropriately balanced.

Since the thyroid gland is regulated by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus, thyroid disorders may result not only from defects in the thyroid itself but also from the disruption of the control system in these other organs. Thyroid disorders caused by overproduction of thyroid hormones are called hyperthyroidism, and underproduction of these hormones is known as hypothyroidism.

The cause of secondary hypothyroidism is failure of the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This is usually caused by a tumor in the region of the pituitary. Rarely the cause is an infiltration of the pituitary by inflammatory cells from the immune system or foreign substances (such as iron in hemochromotosis). Hypothyroidism may cause a variety of symptoms and can affect all body functions. The body’s normal rate of functioning slows, causing mental and physical sluggishness. Symptoms vary from mild to severe. The most severe form is called myxedema, which is a medical emergency and can lead to coma and death.

Risk factors for secondary hypothyroidism include being over 50 years old, being female, and having a history of pituitary or hypothalamic dysfunction.

Symptoms:

Early symptoms:

• Weakness
• Fatigue
• Cold intolerance
• Constipation
• Weight gain
• Depression
• Joint or muscle pain
• Brittle fingernails
• Coarseness, thinning of hair

Late symptoms:

• Slow speech
• Dry, flaky skin
• Thickening of the skin
• Puffy face, hands, and feet
• Decreased hearing
• Thinning of eyebrows
• Hoarseness
• Menstrual disorders

Signs and tests:

A physical exam usually reveals a small thyroid gland. Vital signs (temperature, pulse, rate of breathing, blood pressure) reveal a slow heart rate, low blood pressure, and low temperature. A chest x-ray may reveal an enlarged heart. Laboratory tests to determine thyroid function include:

• Free T4 test
• Total T3
• Serum TSH — Results are generally low in secondary hypothyroidism because the pituitary is damaged. However, normal or even high values may be seen.

Additional laboratory abnormalities may include:

• Increased cholesterol levels
• Increased liver enzymes
• Increased serum prolactin
• Low serum sodium
• Low blood glucose
• A CBC that shows anemia
• Deficiency or excess of other pituitary hormones
• Imaging will include an MRI of the pituitary to look for a tumor.

Treatment:

The purpose of treatment is to replace the deficient thyroid hormone. Levothyroxine is the most commonly used medication. The lowest dose effective in normalizing thyroid function is used. Life-long therapy may be necessary. Medication must be continued even when symptoms subside. After replacement therapy has begun, report any symptoms of increased thyroid activity (hyperthyroidism), such as restlessness, rapid weight loss, and sweating.

A high-fiber, low-calorie diet and moderate activity will help relieve constipation and promote weight loss if weight was gained during the time when thyroid activity was low. In individuals with accompanying hypoadrenalism, steroid replacement must be instituted before thyroid replacement is begun. In patients who have hypothyroidism caused by a pituitary tumor, surgery may be required. However, surgery may not cure the hypothyroidism, and thyroid replacement will still be needed.

Myxedema coma is treated by intravenous (IV) thyroid replacement and steroid therapy. Supportive therapy of oxygen, assisted ventilation, fluid replacement, and intensive care nursing may be indicated.

Support Groups:

Expectations (prognosis):

With early treatment, return to the normal state is usual. However, relapses will occur if the medication is not continued. Myxedema coma can result in death.

Complications:

Myxedema coma, the most severe form of hypothyroidism, is rare. It may be precipitated by an infection, illness, exposure to cold, or certain medications.

Symptoms and signs of myxedema coma include:

• Unresponsiveness
• Decreased breathing
• Low blood pressure
• Low blood sugar
• Below-normal temperature

Other complications include:

• Heart disease
• Infertility
• Miscarriage in pregnant women
• Adrenal crisis, if thyroid replacement is begun prior to steroids in hypoadrenal patients

Calling your health care provider:
Call your health care provider if signs of hypothyroidism are present, or if chest pain or rapid heartbeat occur. Call your provider if restlessness, rapid weight loss, sweating, or other symptoms occur after beginning treatment for this disorder. Call your provider if headache, visual loss, or breast discharge occur.

Prevention:

This condition may not be preventable. Awareness of risk may allow early diagnosis and treatment.

90,000 what is, causes of the disease, treatment

Primary hyperparathyroidism – the third most common endocrine system disease.

Almost everyone knows about diabetes and thyroid diseases, but hypothyroidism remained unnoticed for a long time.

Causes of the disease

The reason for this is clinical manifestations: hurts in places that have nothing to do with the parathyroid glands.

The parathyroid glands are located near the thyroid gland, there are usually four of them. They are responsible for the exchange of calcium. The glands produce parathyroid hormone (parathyroid hormone, PTH), whose task is to supply calcium into the blood.

Vitamin D limits the work of the parathyroid glands. Having received complete freedom of action, the parathyroid gland begins to increase the level of calcium in the blood.

Kidneys

Excess calcium is excreted in the urine.This is fraught with the formation of kidney stones. After removal of stones, relapse develops quickly enough. no one removed the reason for the formation.

Another common complication is thirst and increased urination, especially at night. For such patients, they usually immediately check their blood for sugar and, having received a normal result, throw up their hands. In the case of hyperparathyroidism, thirst is caused by the kidneys’ urge to excrete calcium.

Gastrointestinal tract

An increase in blood calcium stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, leading to erosion or ulceration.Treatment by a gastroenterologist has only a temporary effect, and ulcers regularly relapse.

Cardiovascular system

The impact of the cardiovascular system goes through several channels:

• Deposition of calcium in vessels and valves – this hinders their mobility and makes them more fragile;
• Calcium, the amount of which increases inside the cell, stimulates an increase in blood pressure. The symptom manifests itself in patients first of all, and remains the only one for a long time.

Nervous system

Disputes about the effect of excess calcium levels in the blood on the function of the nervous system are still ongoing.

On the one hand, patients with hyperparathyroidism show weakness, mood swings, and fatigue, which are significantly reduced after normalization of calcium and parathyroid hormone levels.

On the other hand, the symptoms are too nonspecific to be associated directly with parathyroid hormone.

The parathyroid glands themselves increase in size and can often be noticed by an ultrasound doctor when examining the thyroid gland.

Treatment of hyperparathyroidism

If the disease is in a mild form, when there are no clinical manifestations yet, and laboratory parameters have already been violated, then the treatment can be conservative (especially if there is no strong increase in the parathyroid glands). In this case, the patient should be monitored regularly by an endocrinologist.

If the disease has turned into an explicit form with clinical manifestations, then the main method of treatment is surgical .

Recommendations NCCDC

Any disease is better prevented than cured.

The set of tests for detecting the disease has long been approved and is available. These are ionized calcium , vitamin D and parathyroid hormone .

Ionized calcium readings will suffice for simple screening. With its increase, a repeated study is recommended (in order to exclude an error), as well as a more detailed analysis, which includes other indicators.

There is a situation when, at the initial stage of the disease, parathyroid hormone may be normal (at the upper limit), but with an increased level of ionized calcium, the doctor must still observe such a patient.

Vitamin D readings, a direct participant in the described events, should also not be discounted. With hyperparathyroidism, it can be either increased or decreased, therefore, therapy regimens should be developed taking into account its dynamics.

Why do hormones jump and what mysterious rhythms control people’s lives

https://ria.ru/20210408/svadba-1604355641.html

Why do hormones jump and what mysterious rhythms control people’s lives

Why do hormones jump and what

Why do hormones jump and what mysterious rhythms control people’s lives

Israeli researchers have found out that the human body obeys not only daily but also seasonal cycles.And hormones control everything, which for a year … RIA Novosti, 09/17/2021

2021-04-08T08: 00

2021-04-08T08: 00

2021-09-17T16: 27

science

israel

health

biology

hormones

love

spring

neurobiology

/ html / head / meta [@ name = ‘og: title’] / @ content

/ html / head / meta [@ name = ‘og: description’] / @ content

https://cdnn21.img.ria.ru/images/155496/69/1554966958_0:181:1152:829_1920x0_80_0_0_5525669a79c4e02a92f9805d4112a47a.jpg

MOSCOW, April 8 – RIA Novosti, Vladislav Strekopytov. Israeli researchers have found that the human body obeys not only daily but also seasonal cycles. And hormones control everything, which have two bursts per year. How this is reflected in the main biological function of a person – in the material of RIA Novosti. According to the laws of nature In spring and summer, most animals give birth, and by the end of summer and autumn, a restructuring begins in their bodies, associated with preparation for winter.Hormones are responsible for this. As daylight decreases, the level of the hormone leptin decreases in reindeer. As a result, body temperature and sexual activity decrease: this saves energy in a harsh winter. In rhesus monkeys living in the equatorial zone, ovulation is much more pronounced after the rainy season – and shortly before the start of the next such season, in the summer, offspring appear. The most famous example is hibernation, or hibernation, into which bears, badgers, raccoons fall. and many rodents.Their body temperature decreases, respiration, heartbeat, nervous activity and other physiological processes slow down. With animals, a lot is clear, but the seasonal cycles in humans have been little studied and the data on them are contradictory. Because of this, the very fact of the influence of the seasons on our hormones was questioned. When “hormones play” Scientists from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, headed by professor of molecular cell biology Uri Alon, decided to understand this issue. They processed monthly sorted blood test results for hormones from the database of the largest health insurance organization in Israel, Clalit, for the period from 2002 to 2017.The sample included data from three and a half million people – men and women aged 20 to 50 years. This is about half of the country’s adult population. In total, we studied the seasonal fluctuations of 11 different hormones – reproductive and sex hormones, thyroid gland, and growth hormones produced by the liver, for example, cortisol, a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It also regulates the body’s carbohydrate metabolism, so it is characterized by a clear daily rhythm of secretion. It turned out that its level also depends on the season.In the human body, there are two peaks in hormone production: winter and summer. The pituitary hormones, which control growth, metabolism, stress, and lactation, generally peak in late summer, and sex and thyroid hormones in late winter or early spring, during which time estradiol levels in women and testosterone levels in both sexes are approximately five percent higher than the annual average. According to scientists, this is enough to significantly influence sexual behavior.The spring hormonal release gives a surge of positive emotions, feelings of sympathy and love arise more easily, and sexual attraction grows. So the phrase that “hormones play in the spring” has a completely scientific explanation. The second, less pronounced surge, scientists observed at the end of summer, only here the picture is mirrored – with an increase in estradiol in men and women, and testosterone – only in women. The authors of the study have not yet found an explanation for such an inversion, they simply noted the presence of two “high” hormonal seasons – in early spring and late summer.It is no coincidence that weddings most often take place in the spring and fall, and the world’s fertility peaks in January and July. How the season changes hormones Scientists suggest that the seasonal clock of our body is governed by feedback between the pituitary gland and peripheral glands, such as the adrenal or thyroid glands. … The sun’s ultraviolet light sends signals to the pituitary gland through the skin. The more active the sun, the more it produces hormones. It is clear that there is a peak in the summer. But to understand where another maximum in winter comes from, I had to build models.It turned out that the primary hormones of the pituitary gland also have signaling functions. They send messages to the reproductive system, thyroid, adrenal glands, and other peripheral glands. Secondary or effector hormones are secreted in them, which act directly on the body, controlling its functions and reactions. Effector hormones affect not only metabolism, but also the size and activity of the organs of the endocrine system themselves. For example, pituitary hormones cause the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and also stimulate their growth.Cortisol shrinks the pituitary gland, and then the adrenal glands return to their original state of rest, and so on in a continuous cycle. Scientists have previously noted periodic changes in the size of the glands and the amount of hormones secreted by them, but they never thought that this was a feedback process. It takes about six months, which is why there is a time delay explaining the winter peak of hormonal release. Thus, the pituitary gland, which regulates the work of the endocrine system, secretes hormones most actively in the summer, and testosterone, estradiol and progesterone, produced by the thyroid gland, reach a record concentration at the end. winters – early spring.According to the authors, the pituitary hormones at the end of summer trigger the processes in the thyroid gland that allow it to develop during the fall and winter in order to bring the reproductive system to full alertness in the spring. the brain, which regulates the circadian rhythms of all living organisms. Melatonin is produced at night, which is why it is also called the sleep hormone. The authors of the work suggest that the amplitude of seasonal hormonal fluctuations among residents of the northern regions is even higher – after all, the length of daylight hours during the year varies much more there than in Israel.And for those in the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite position of the highs and lows in the level of hormones is possible. But more research is needed to be sure.

https://ria.ru/20210109/oksitotsin-15

158.html

https://ria.ru/20201203/rak-1587511798.html

https://ria.ru/20200713/1574266976.html

Israel

RIA Novosti

[email protected]

7 495 645-6601

FSUE MIA “Russia Today”

https: // xn – c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn – p1ai / awards /

2021

RIA Novosti

[email protected]

7 495 645-6601

FSUE MIA “Russia Today”

https: //xn--c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn –p1ai / awards /

News

ru-RU

https://ria.ru/docs/about/copyright.html

https: //xn--c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn--p1ai/

RIA News

[email protected]

7 495 645-6601

FSUE MIA “Russia Today”

https: // xn – c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn – p1ai / awards /

https://cdnn21.img.ria.ru/images/155496/69/1554966958_69:120:1082:880_1920x0_80_0_0_19170c083d0951205138375c8f01bdb9.jpg

c8f01bdb9.jpg

RI 495 645-6601

FSUE MIA “Russia Today”

https: //xn--c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn--p1ai/awards/

RIA Novosti

[email protected]

7 495 645-6601

FSUE MIA “Russia Today”

https: // xn – c1acbl2abdlkab1og.xn – p1ai / awards /

Israel, health, biology, hormones, love, spring, neurobiology

MOSCOW, 8 Apr – RIA Novosti, Vladislav Strekopytov. Israeli researchers have found that the human body obeys not only daily but also seasonal cycles. And hormones control everything, which have two bursts per year. How this is reflected in the main biological function of a person – in the material of RIA Novosti.

According to the laws of nature

In the spring and summer, most animals give birth, and by the end of summer and autumn, a restructuring begins in their bodies associated with preparation for winter.Hormones are responsible for this.

As daylight decreases, the level of the hormone leptin decreases in reindeer. As a result, body temperature and sexual activity decrease: this saves energy in a harsh winter. In rhesus monkeys living in the equatorial zone, ovulation is much more pronounced after the rainy season – and shortly before the start of the next such season, in the summer, offspring appear.

The most famous example is hibernation, or hibernation, into which bears, badgers, raccoons and many rodents fall.Their body temperature decreases, breathing, heart rate, nervous activity and other physiological processes slow down.

With animals, much is clear, but seasonal cycles in humans have been little studied and the data on them are contradictory. Because of this, the very fact of the influence of the seasons on our hormones has been called into question.

January 9, 08:00They processed monthly sorted blood test results for hormones from the database of the largest health insurance organization in Israel, Clalit, for the period from 2002 to 2017.

The sample included the data of three and a half million people – men and women aged 20 to 50 years. This is about half of the country’s adult population. In total, we studied the seasonal fluctuations of 11 different hormones – reproductive and sex hormones, the thyroid gland, as well as growth hormones that the liver produces.

For example, cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It also regulates the body’s carbohydrate metabolism, so it is characterized by a clear daily rhythm of secretion. It turned out that its level also depends on the season.

There are two peaks of hormone production in the human body: winter and summer. Pituitary hormones, which control growth, metabolism, stress and lactation, generally peak in late summer, while sex and thyroid hormones peak in late winter or early spring.

At this time, the level of estradiol in women and testosterone in both sexes is about five percent higher than the annual average. According to scientists, this is enough to significantly influence sexual behavior.

Spring hormonal release gives a surge of positive emotions, feelings of sympathy and love arise more easily, and sexual desire grows. So the phrase that “hormones play in the spring” has a completely scientific explanation.

The second, less pronounced surge was observed by scientists at the end of summer, only here the picture is mirrored – with an increase in estradiol in men and women, and testosterone only in women.The authors of the study have not yet found an explanation for such an inversion, they simply noted the presence of two “high” hormonal seasons – in early spring and late summer.

It is no coincidence, apparently, weddings most often take place in spring and autumn, and the peaks of the birth rate in the world are in January and July.

December 3, 2020, 14:50The sun’s ultraviolet light sends signals to the pituitary gland through the skin. The more active the sun, the more it produces hormones. It is clear that there is a peak in the summer. But to understand where another maximum in winter comes from, I had to build models.

It turned out that the primary hormones of the pituitary gland also have signaling functions. They send messages to the reproductive system, thyroid, adrenal glands, and other peripheral glands. Secondary or effector hormones are secreted in them, which act directly on the body, controlling its functions and reactions.

Effector hormones affect not only metabolism, but also the size and activity of the organs of the endocrine system themselves. For example, pituitary hormones cause the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and also stimulate their growth. Cortisol shrinks the pituitary gland, and then the adrenal glands return to their original state of rest, and so on in a continuous cycle.

Scientists have previously noted periodic changes in the size of the glands and the amount of hormones secreted by them, but they never thought that this is a feedback process.It takes about six months, which is why there is a time lag explaining the winter peak of hormonal release.

Thus, the pituitary gland, which regulates the endocrine system, secretes hormones most actively in the summer, and testosterone, estradiol and progesterone produced by the thyroid gland reach a record concentration in late winter – early spring. According to the authors, the pituitary hormones at the end of summer trigger the processes in the thyroid gland that allow it to develop during the fall and winter in order to bring the reproductive system into full combat readiness in the spring.

Researchers believe that melatonin, a brain hormone that regulates the circadian rhythms of all living organisms, is the trigger of the entire hormonal cycle or the “arrow of the seasonal clock”. Melatonin is produced at night, which is why it is also called the sleep hormone.

The authors of the work suggest that the amplitude of seasonal hormonal fluctuations among residents of the northern regions is even higher – after all, the length of daylight hours during the year changes much more there than in Israel. And for those in the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite position of the highs and lows in the level of hormones is possible.But more research is needed to be sure.

13 July 2020, 12:09 Endocrinologist, endocrinologist consultation Samara.

Samara is a region with an increased rate of endocrine system diseases

Endocrinology deals with the study of complex processes in the body associated with the work of the endocrine glands, which are responsible for the production of hormones.It is known that the causes of neuralgic and cardiovascular diseases are most often the thyroid, reproductive or parathyroid glands, working with disorders. And in order to find out exactly what caused the disease and how to treat it, it is important to be examined by a qualified endocrinologist. At the same time, it is impossible to delay the trip to such a specialist, because if the disease is neglected, then it is very difficult to cure it.

There are practically no symptoms

If there are disturbances in the work of the endocrine system, then the primary symptoms are not so noticeable.Therefore, people practically do not attach importance to them. As a result, a person enters the office of an endocrinologist when the disease has developed strongly. Therefore, it is so important to listen to the body, and if you feel even a slight malaise, you must make an appointment, so you will be able to avoid negative consequences.

WHEN TO CONTACT AN ENDOCRINOLOGIST?

• apathy;
• sweating;

90,033 goiter;

90,033 edema;

• fatigue;

90,033 irritability;

90,033 hair loss;

90,033 brittle nails;

• feelings of anxiety;

90,033 overweight;

• impaired lipid metabolism;

90,033 hand tremors;

90,033 itching;

90,033 bone pain;

• bad dream.

Make an appointment with an endocrinologist

Usually, with such symptoms, an endocrinologist prescribes a complete diagnosis of the endocrine systems for the patient, and based on the results obtained, the doctor draws up a plan for the most effective treatment. It should be said right away that it is always developed individually and directly depends on the characteristics of the patient’s body and the complexity of the disease. All diseases of the endocrine system must be treated under the supervision of a highly qualified endocrinologist.Then you can be sure that recovery will come as quickly as possible. It is also important your attitude towards your health and an attentive approach to the fulfillment of all the doctor’s prescriptions.

Very important during pregnancy

In addition, it is very important to visit an endocrinologist if a woman is planning to have a baby or is already pregnant. Indeed, only with the correct functioning of the endocrine system, the fetus will develop normally.

Prices are indicated in rubles and are for informational purposes only.
Cash and bank cards are accepted for payment.

<

* For items marked with an asterisk (*), discounts do not apply.

90,000 Thyroid disease. Treatment of the thyroid gland in the “EuroMed Clinic”

Unfortunately, problems with the work of the endocrine system and the thyroid gland occur not only in adults, but also in babies.Moreover, some pathologies can develop even during the period of intrauterine development! For the prevention of these conditions, proper nutrition of the expectant mother and baby is very important. Most thyroid diseases are much easier to prevent than cure.

Our consultant pediatrician “EuroMed Clinic” Elena Sergeevna KOCHETKOVA

Congenital hypothyroidism

The thyroid gland is laid in the baby already at 4-5 weeks of intrauterine development.And its formation is greatly influenced by the nutrition of the mother and, most importantly, the sufficient use of iodine by her during pregnancy.

Lack of iodine during intrauterine development and in early childhood can lead to serious pathologies of the thyroid gland, to problems with the intellectual and physical development of the child in the future.

The development of hypothyroidism (decreased function of the thyroid gland) in the prenatal and neonatal periods can lead to an irreversible decrease in the mental development of the child.Against the background of iodine deficiency, endemic goiter and hypothyroidism, disorders in the formation of the child’s brain can occur, manifesting themselves in a wide range – from a mild decrease in intelligence to severe forms of endemic cretinism. It should be noted that in a number of cases these deviations in the state of health of children, not detected during the neonatal period, do not appear immediately, but during puberty. In this case, various manifestations are possible: a decrease in the reproduction of auditory information, a deterioration in visual memory, other mental activity, as well as the adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system.Moreover, it was found that, against the background of chronic iodine deficiency, 30–60% of children have behavioral and emotional abnormalities, and personality formation disorders are noted. Studies conducted around the world have shown that the average IQ in regions with severe iodine deficiency is 15–20% lower than in areas where such deficiency is not observed.

The causes of congenital hypothyroidism in children are:

1. maternal hypothyroidism
2. genetic predisposition
3. reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormones

You can suspect hypothyroidism in a newborn by the following symptoms:

1. birth weight over 4 kg
2. prolonged jaundice, swelling
3. dry, peeling skin
4. cyanosis in the nose
5. chronic constipation

In the maternity hospital, an analysis for congenital hypothyroidism is mandatory.To do this, blood is taken from the heel of the newborn, the level of TSH is determined. Do not refuse to carry out this analysis, because with congenital hypothyroidism, it is very important to start treatment as early as possible! With timely started treatment, it is possible to compensate for all violations without the development of any complications.

Acquired hypothyroidism

Unfortunately, hypothyroidism is not only congenital, but also acquired. It can develop when there is a violation of the formation of hormones in the thyroid gland.The reasons for the development of hypothyroidism are:

1. some diseases
2. removal of thyroid gland
3. iodine deficiency

Very often there is a certain hereditary predisposition, i.e. certain diseases of the thyroid gland in close relatives, especially in the mother. It is advisable to examine such children even without clinical manifestations of pathology.

Symptoms

1. swelling of the face and hands
2. drowsiness, increased fatigue
3. decreased appetite
4. lowering blood pressure
5. poor weight gain
6. child’s lag in physical and mental development

Thyrotosis

Endocrine disease associated with the fact that the thyroid gland produces an increased amount of hormones.It is found much more often in girls than in boys. Most often, in children, thyrotoxicosis develops after certain diseases: tonsillitis, flu, scarlet fever, diphtheria, rheumatism, tuberculosis, etc. In addition, changes in the thyroid gland may occur due to allergies.

Symptoms of thyrotoxicosis in children:

1. enlargement of the thyroid gland (often only a doctor can determine this)
2. eye reshaping, they appear large and out of orbit
3. white line of sclera between the upper edge of the iris and upper eyelid
4. tachycardia, heart murmurs
5. increased nervousness, irritability, aggressiveness
6. sleep disturbances
7. weight loss
8. reproductive disorders

If you notice the above symptoms in your child, do not delay – see a doctor! This will help to avoid serious impairments to the mental and physical development of the child.

Treatment of diseases of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in St. Petersburg in the clinic “Avanta”.

Diseases of the endocrine system are usually chronic in nature, and exacerbations or progression of the disease bring a lot of discomfort to the patient and interfere with fully enjoying life. This is due to the fact that the hormones secreted by the organs of the endocrine system have a significant effect on all systems of the body, in fact, they are the regulators of the work of our body.Hormones can change mood, affect the functioning of the heart, brain, the quality of bone and muscle tissue, etc.

The thyroid and parathyroid glands are an important component of the human endocrine system. The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that consists of two lobes and an isthmus. It is located in the neck, adjacent to the trachea. As our age changes, the thyroid gland also changes. In the period of growing up, it increases, and at an older age, it begins to decrease.

The importance of balance in the production of thyroid hormones is enormous, since they are responsible for homeostasis. With the participation of thyroid hormones, the following processes take place:

• Metabolic processes in tissues and organs;
• Formation of new cells;
• Programmed death of old cells;
• Maintaining a constant body temperature;
• Energy production;
• Regulation of oxygen consumption;
• Formation and neutralization of free radicals.

The activity of the thyroid gland affects the mental, mental and physical condition of the human body. Almost all pregnant women need to be examined by an endocrinologist and tested for the content of thyroid hormones. This is done because a lack of thyroid hormones can lead to the development of cretinism and other developmental pathologies. Also, the thyroid gland is responsible for the activity of our immune system, stimulating T cells that fight infectious agents.
The parathyroid glands are paired organs that are found near the thyroid gland. There can be from 2 to 8, usually 4. These very small organs are responsible for the balance of calcium in our body. With a decrease in calcium levels, parathyroid hormone stimulates the release of calcium into the blood, and the hormone calcitonin is responsible for transferring excess calcium into bone tissue. The treatment of diseases of the parathyroid glands and the preservation of their normal functioning is extremely important, since the quality of muscle and bone tissue, the transmission of nerve impulses, the health and strength of the teeth depend on them.

Causes of diseases of the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands

It is sometimes extremely difficult to determine the true cause of hormonal changes and disruptions, therefore sometimes it takes a lot of time to determine the root causes of the pathology of the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands. Unfortunately, there is no exact list of reasons why this might occur. Many experts agree that genetic predisposition is the main factor. In addition, there are a number of factors that can contribute to the development of these diseases, as they force the glands to produce more or less hormones.These can be:

• Stress and overload;
• Unbalanced diet, excess or lack of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients;
• Poor ecology;
• Infections;
• Chronic diseases;
• Bad habits;
• Taking certain medications, etc.

Treatment of diseases of the parathyroid glands and thyroid gland

Treatment of diseases of the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands is based primarily on the elimination of the cause that caused the imbalance in the production of hormones.This can be hormonal therapy, therapy with drugs with trace elements, treatment with thyreostatics, surgery.

Treatment of endocrine ophthalmopathy

Endocrine ophthalmopathy is a pathology of the orbital and periorbital tissue, which quite often occurs together with pathologies of the thyroid gland. The most common treatment is glucocorticoids. Also, if this disease is detected, it is worth quitting smoking, leading a healthy and active lifestyle, eating a balanced diet and using moisturizing eye drops.

Treatment of Basedow-Graves disease

Basedow-Graves disease is a diffuse toxic goiter arising from the pathology of the human immune system, which begins to produce antibodies to the TSH receptor, that is, against the thyroid gland itself. Most often, this disease is curable. At the first stage, endocrinologists prescribe thyreostatics. If this treatment does not help, then surgical methods and therapy with radioactive iodine are used.

Treatment of thyroiditis

This is one of the most common diseases of the thyroid gland, which is caused by iodine deficiency in the human body.At the first symptoms of thyroiditis, therapy with iodine preparations can be prescribed. If the disease continues to develop, the patient is prescribed hormone replacement therapy. This therapy is lifelong, in addition to this, patients need to increase the dose of hormones over time. For large thyroid glands, surgical intervention is indicated. In addition to these methods, today there is one more.

Treatment of multinodular and diffuse thyroid goiter

Multinodular thyroid goiter is the collective name for various thyroid nodules.This type of pathology does not always require treatment, sometimes it just needs to be monitored and controlled. In cases where the function of the thyroid gland is impaired, thyreostatics, L-thyroxine and radioactive iodine-131 are usually prescribed. In difficult cases, surgical intervention is used.

Treatment of hypoparathyroidism

Hypoparathyroidism is an insufficient function of the parathyroid glands, manifested by a low calcium content in the blood, fragility of bones, pain in muscles and joints, cramps and spasms, and nervous disorders.For the treatment of this pathology, solutions of calcium salts, preparations containing calcium and magnesium are used. A diet high in calcium is also prescribed.

Treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism

Primary hyperparathyroidism has several treatment options. This can be a strict diet and removal of altered areas of the parathyroid glands.

Treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism

Secondary hyperparathyroidism does not appear due to pathologies of the parathyroid glands, but due to disruption in the work of other body systems.It can appear due to rickets, vitamin D deficiency, chronic renal failure, and during menopause. With this pathology, diet therapy, phosphorus adsorbents and vitamin D3 are prescribed. In advanced cases, surgical intervention is indicated.

Diagnosis of the thyroid gland

Diagnosis of the thyroid gland is carried out through several examinations. The first thing to do is visit an endocrinologist. He will ask about the presence of chronic diseases and taken medications, will palpate the thyroid gland.Further, the specialist will most likely direct you to the necessary examination: the content of the hormones T3 and T4, TSH, tests for antibodies to thyroglobulin and thyroid peroxidase. After the tests, you will have to undergo an ultrasound of the thyroid gland, computed tomography or MRI, as well as, if necessary, a fine-needle biopsy and thyroid scintigraphy.

Diagnostics of the parathyroid gland

Diagnostics of the parathyroid gland is also carried out on the basis of clinical data, blood tests for hormones and ultrasound of the parathyroid glands.In difficult cases, scintigraphy may be done.

Diseases of the endocrine system, eating disorders and metabolic disorders (E00

Pediatric endocrinologist

Children’s endocrinologist is a doctor who deals with the pathology of children’s endocrine glands, and at the same time the problems of sexual development and growth of children and adolescents.The field of activity of a pediatric endocrinologist is the thyroid (parathyroid), pancreas and thymus, testes and ovaries, hypothalamus and pituitary gland, as well as the adrenal glands.

Endocrine diseases include: diabetes mellitus, thyroid diseases, hypo- and hyperthyroidism), obesity, impaired growth (these include both delayed and accelerated growth), impaired sexual development in boys and girls (both delayed sexual development and premature sexual development), adrenal disease.

Today, an increase in the number of diseases that are associated with disruption of the activity in the endocrine system is noted around the world, and most of the problems arise at an early age. Pediatric endocrinology has its own number of features that are directly related to children and adolescents as developing and growing organisms. Unfortunately, quite often pediatricians do not always pay due attention to deviations that can be caused by endocrine problems in a child.Therefore, it is worth seeking advice from a pediatric endocrinologist without a referral from a pediatrician to make sure your child is developing correctly or to identify pathologies at an early stage.

When should you contact a pediatric endocrinologist?

• If your child is often ill, unless other reasons are excluded.
• If the next of kin have endocrine diseases.
• If your baby was born weighing more than 4 kg, or is rapidly gaining weight, fatter than his peers;
• If you have a child with low birth weight (malnutrition).
• If your child is significantly higher or lower than their peers.
• In violation of sexual development: premature sexual development is characterized by the early appearance (up to 8 years in girls and up to 9 years in boys) of secondary sexual characteristics (hair growth in intimate areas, armpits; in girls – breast enlargement, menstruation, in boys – an increase in the penis, the appearance of hair on the chin, above the upper lip).

With delayed sexual development, when children who have reached the upper limit of normal puberty (13 years for girls and up to 9 years for boys) lack secondary sexual characteristics.

If you suspect a thyroid disease. The main signs of which are: enlargement of the thyroid gland, weakness, fatigue, or vice versa, increased nervous irritability, skin changes, hair loss, brittle nails, menstrual irregularities in girls.

If you notice one of the above symptoms, then you should not delay visiting a pediatric endocrinologist!

Routine examinations of a child by a pediatric endocrinologist

There are some situations in medical practice when a child is recommended to be regularly examined by a pediatric endocrinologist.

A visit to such a doctor is necessary if:

• The baby’s birth weight was less than 2.8 kilograms, or more than 4.
• The baby has congenital or acquired diseases of the thyroid gland.
• Disorders of the adrenal glands were found.
• Diagnosed with impaired sexual development (gynecomastia, delayed sexual development, accelerated sexual development, impaired sexual differentiation).
• The impaired metabolism was determined.
• Children with an already established diagnosis, requiring regular monitoring by an endocrinologist and laboratory control.
• In these cases, a timely visit to a pediatric endocrinologist will help your child to lead a normal life. Moreover, constant consultation with a specialist will help prevent serious complications.

What happens at a pediatric endocrinologist appointment?

Reception of a pediatric endocrinologist begins with the collection of a detailed anamnesis – the doctor asks about the symptoms and complaints that have appeared, about the child’s diet and environment, and about his behavior.In addition, the doctor is interested in cases of endocrine system diseases in close relatives of the child. This is followed by an examination of the child – external data can tell a lot to an experienced specialist. Additional studies are assigned.

What additional examinations can a pediatric endocrinologist prescribe?

If necessary, ultrasound of the thyroid gland, kidneys and adrenal glands, as well as the abdominal organs is performed. In addition, the doctor may prescribe hormonal tests to clarify the diagnosis.

Based on the results of the examination, treatment is prescribed.