What are the most dangerous sea snake species. How to identify a sea snake bite. What first aid measures should be taken for sea snake envenomation. When to seek medical treatment after a sea snake bite. How is sea snake venom toxicity treated.

The Deadly World of Sea Snakes: Understanding the Risks

Sea snakes are fascinating yet potentially dangerous creatures that inhabit the warm tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. With 57 known species divided into two major subfamilies (Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae), these reptiles are considered the most abundant venomous creatures on the planet. Despite their prevalence, sea snake bites on humans are relatively rare, primarily occurring when fishermen encounter them in their nets.

The venom of sea snakes is highly potent, containing a powerful neurotoxin with low LD50 values. This means that even a small amount of venom can be lethal. The toxin affects both presynaptic and postsynaptic neural sites, potentially leading to skeletal muscle paralysis, including the respiratory muscles and diaphragm. This can result in severe respiratory compromise or drowning if not treated promptly and appropriately.

Why are sea snakes so dangerous?

• Potent neurotoxin in their venom
• Small teeth that can cause unnoticed bites
• Ability to swim in coastal waters where humans frequent
• Tendency to become entangled in fishing nets

Identifying the Most Venomous Sea Snake Species

While all sea snakes are venomous, some species are known to be particularly dangerous due to the potency of their venom or their tendency to encounter humans. The Beaked Sea Snake (Enhydrina schistosa), also known as the Hook-nosed Sea Snake, is often cited as one of the most venomous sea snakes. Its venom is estimated to be 4 to 8 times more potent than that of a cobra.

Other highly venomous sea snake species include:

1. Yellow-bellied Sea Snake (Hydrophis platurus)
2. Olive Sea Snake (Aipysurus laevis)
3. Dubois’ Sea Snake (Aipysurus duboisii)
4. Stokes’ Sea Snake (Astrotia stokesii)

It’s important to note that the degree of danger posed by a sea snake species is not solely determined by venom potency, but also by factors such as habitat overlap with human activities, behavior, and likelihood of encountering humans.

Recognizing Sea Snake Bite Symptoms and Envenomation Signs

Identifying a sea snake bite can be challenging, as their small teeth may not leave noticeable puncture marks. Often, victims may not realize they’ve been bitten until symptoms begin to manifest. This delayed onset of symptoms can be particularly dangerous, as it may lead to a false sense of security.

What are the initial signs of a sea snake bite?

• Minimal to no pain at the bite site
• Slight bleeding or bruising
• Numbness or tingling sensation

As envenomation progresses, more severe symptoms may develop:

• Muscle pain and stiffness
• Weakness and fatigue
• Ptosis (drooping eyelids)
• Difficulty speaking or swallowing
• Respiratory distress
• Paralysis
• Myoglobinuria (dark urine due to muscle breakdown)
• Elevated creatinine and creatine kinase levels

The onset of these symptoms can occur within 30 minutes to several hours after the bite, depending on the amount of venom injected and the individual’s physiological response.

Immediate First Aid for Sea Snake Bites: Critical Steps to Take

When a sea snake bite occurs, prompt and appropriate first aid can be life-saving. The primary goal is to slow the spread of venom and seek medical attention as quickly as possible.

What are the essential first aid steps for a sea snake bite?

1. Keep the victim calm and still to slow venom spread
2. Remove any constricting items (jewelry, tight clothing) from the affected limb
3. Apply a pressure immobilization bandage if available
4. Immobilize the bitten limb with a splint
5. Seek immediate medical attention or evacuation to the nearest healthcare facility

It’s crucial to note that traditional first aid measures like sucking out the venom or applying a tourniquet are not recommended, as they can cause more harm than good. Additionally, the use of hot water is not indicated for sea snake bites, as research has shown that their venom remains stable even at high temperatures.

Medical Treatment Options for Sea Snake Envenomation

Once the victim reaches a medical facility, treatment focuses on managing symptoms and administering antivenom if necessary. The mainstay of treatment for severe envenomation is the administration of sea snake antivenom.

How is sea snake antivenom administered?

Sea snake antivenom is typically given intravenously in a hospital setting. The dosage depends on the severity of envenomation and the patient’s response. In some cases, multiple doses may be required. It’s important to note that antivenom can cause allergic reactions, so patients are closely monitored during administration.

Other supportive treatments may include:

• Respiratory support, including mechanical ventilation if necessary
• Fluid and electrolyte management
• Pain management
• Monitoring of renal function and treatment of myoglobinuria
• Management of coagulopathy, if present

In cases where antivenom is not available or its use is contraindicated, supportive care becomes the primary treatment approach. This may involve prolonged mechanical ventilation until the effects of the neurotoxin wear off, which can take several days to weeks.

Preventing Sea Snake Encounters: Safety Measures for Ocean Activities

While sea snake bites are relatively rare, prevention is always the best approach. Implementing safety measures can significantly reduce the risk of encounters with these venomous creatures.

How can you minimize the risk of sea snake encounters?

• Avoid swimming in areas known to have high sea snake populations
• Wear protective clothing when engaging in water activities in sea snake habitats
• Be cautious when handling fishing nets or equipment in areas where sea snakes are common
• Learn to identify sea snakes and their behaviors
• Maintain a safe distance if you spot a sea snake while swimming or diving
• Avoid attempting to handle or capture sea snakes

For fishermen and others who work in areas with sea snake populations, additional precautions may be necessary:

• Use protective gear when handling fishing nets
• Implement safe procedures for removing sea snakes from nets
• Ensure proper training for all crew members on sea snake safety
• Keep antivenom and first aid supplies readily available on fishing vessels

The Role of Research in Improving Sea Snake Bite Management

Ongoing research plays a crucial role in enhancing our understanding of sea snake venom and improving treatment options for envenomation. Scientists are continually studying the composition of sea snake venoms, their effects on the human body, and potential new therapies.

What are some current areas of research in sea snake toxicology?

• Development of more effective and species-specific antivenoms
• Investigation of novel therapeutic approaches, such as small molecule inhibitors
• Improved diagnostic tools for rapid identification of sea snake species involved in bites
• Study of venom variation within and between sea snake species
• Exploration of potential medical applications of sea snake venom components

These research efforts aim to reduce mortality and morbidity associated with sea snake bites, as well as potentially uncover new medical applications for venom components. For instance, some sea snake venom proteins have shown promise in pain management and as potential cancer therapies.

Global Impact: Sea Snake Bites as a Neglected Tropical Disease

While sea snake bites may not receive as much attention as other venomous animal encounters, they represent a significant health concern in certain regions. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes snakebite envenoming, including sea snake bites, as a neglected tropical disease.

Why are sea snake bites considered a neglected tropical disease?

• Disproportionate impact on rural and coastal communities in developing countries
• Lack of comprehensive data on incidence and mortality rates
• Limited access to appropriate antivenom in many affected areas
• Insufficient research funding compared to other tropical diseases
• Challenges in prevention and treatment due to the aquatic habitat of sea snakes

Addressing sea snake bites as a neglected tropical disease requires a multifaceted approach, including:

1. Improved surveillance and reporting systems
2. Enhanced production and distribution of effective antivenoms
3. Community education and awareness programs
4. Training of healthcare workers in affected regions
5. Increased research funding for sea snake venom studies and treatment development

By recognizing the global impact of sea snake bites and implementing comprehensive strategies to address them, we can work towards reducing the burden of this potentially deadly encounter in vulnerable communities.

As we continue to explore the fascinating yet dangerous world of sea snakes, it’s clear that a balance of respect, caution, and scientific understanding is necessary. While these creatures pose a significant risk to human health in certain situations, they also play important roles in marine ecosystems and hold potential for medical breakthroughs. By promoting awareness, supporting research, and improving access to treatment, we can mitigate the risks associated with sea snake encounters while appreciating their unique place in our oceans.

Sea Snake Toxicity – StatPearls

Justin Fuehrer; Erwin L. Kong; Heather M. Murphy-Lavoie.

Author Information and Affiliations

Last Update: April 2, 2023.

Continuing Education Activity

Sea snakes, thought to be the most abundant venomous reptiles on the planet, are found in the warm, tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans but not in the Atlantic Ocean. There are 57 known species of sea snakes and two major subfamilies (Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Sea snakes are not aggressive, although they have been known to bite humans in self-defense or when surprised; this most commonly occurs when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. Envenomation by sea snakes can be a potentially fatal condition if not appropriately treated, as sea snake venom is a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 values. Subsequent respiratory compromise or drowning can occur owing to the paralysis of the diaphragm and skeletal muscles, respectively. Although not all bites result in envenomation, avoidance of sea snakes is the best approach. This activity outlines the evaluation and management of sea snake toxicity and the role of the interprofessional team in improving care for patients exposed to this venom.

Objectives:

• Describe the epidemiology of sea snake bites.

• Outline the signs and symptoms of sea snake envenomation.

• Describe appropriate treatment strategies for those with sea snake envenomation.

• Review the importance of the medical team in coordinating the care of a patient exposed to sea snake venom.

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Introduction

Sea snakes, thought to be the most abundant venomous reptiles on the planet, are found in the warm, tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans but not in the Atlantic Ocean. There are 57 known species of sea snakes and two major subfamilies (Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Sea snakes are not aggressive, although they have been known to bite humans in self-defense or when surprised; this most commonly occurs when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. Envenomation by sea snakes can be a potentially fatal condition if not appropriately treated, as sea snake venom is a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 values. Subsequent respiratory compromise or drowning can occur owing to the paralysis of the diaphragm and skeletal muscles, respectively. Although not all bites result in envenomation, avoidance of sea snakes is the best approach.[1]

Etiology

Sea snakes are not aggressive, although if they feel threatened or surprised, a bite can occur. Fishermen are the most at-risk population for sea snake bites, as contact with sea snakes can occur when fishermen attempt to remove sea snakes from their netting. Much like terrestrial snakes, not all bites result in envenomation.[2] Importantly, sea snakes have small teeth, making it possible for a bite to occur without a person realizing they were bitten until symptoms begin.

Epidemiology

Sea snake bites occur far less frequently than terrestrial snake bites and most commonly occur when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. The true incidence of sea snake bites is not known as many bites likely occur at sea and in small fishing villages where reporting bites may be difficult. Although sea snake bites occur less frequently than terrestrial snake bites, the potent neurotoxin leads to a high rate of morbidity and, potentially, mortality if not treated rapidly.[3]

Pathophysiology

Sea snake venom contains a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 levels. Several enzymes are present in sea snake venom, including acetylcholinesterase, hyaluronidase, leucine aminopeptidase, 5′- nucleotidase, phosphomonoesterase, phosphodiesterase, and phospholipase A. Sea snake venom acts at both presynaptic and postsynaptic sites. The presynaptic toxin is thought to be due to phospholipase A. This toxin initially causes the release of acetylcholine but, ultimately, the inhibition of acetylcholine release. The postsynaptic neurotoxin is a small protein between 6,000 and 8,000 daltons. This neurotoxin binds nearly irreversibly to the postsynaptic membrane at acetylcholine receptor sites. The net effect of both the presynaptic and postsynaptic toxin is the inhibition of neural impulses which can lead to skeletal muscle paralysis, including paralysis of the respiratory muscles and diaphragm. Other toxins, such as phospholipase A, can cause myonecrosis with resultant muscle breakdown, myoglobinuria, and elevated creatinine and creatine kinase levels.[1]

Toxicokinetics

Sea snake venom is extremely stable. Research has shown that boiling for 30 minutes and dissolving venom in both acidic and basic solutions to a pH range of 1 to 11, respectively, did not significantly change LD50 levels after administration in rats.[1] Therefore, hot water is not indicated for this venom and may, in fact, worsen outcomes by increasing blood flow to the area with the toxins.

History and Physical

Physical exam findings revolve around the blockage of neural impulses and muscle breakdown. Paralysis, dysphagia, muscle spasm, respiratory arrest, and dysarthria can occur, and the most common cause of death in sea snake poisoning is respiratory arrest due to diaphragm paralysis or drowning secondary to skeletal muscle paralysis. Because sea snakes have small teeth, bite marks may be difficult to appreciate, and it can sometimes be difficult for the victim to realize they were bitten until symptoms occur. In general, if no symptoms occur within a few hours after the bite, including both neurologic symptoms and muscle pain from myonecrosis, it is possible that the bite was a dry bite with no envenomation.[2] Approximately 50% of bites are dry bites, and only 50% of the time is there a significant envenomation.[4]

Evaluation

Due to the potential for myonecrosis from phospholipase A, creatine kinase levels may be elevated and myoglobinuria present in urine. No specific laboratory or radiographic tests are required for the diagnosis as clinical history including contact with a sea snake, and typical symptomatology is all that is required for diagnosis. Serum electrolytes and creatinine levels may be helpful to monitor for resultant kidney injury but are not required for diagnosis.[5]

Treatment / Management

Treatment is supportive and requires the administration of antivenin as soon as possible when symptoms of envenomation are present. Removal of the patient from the water is paramount, as skeletal muscle paralysis can cause drowning. Respiratory compromise may also occur owing to diaphragmatic paralysis, and patients may require intubation and mechanical ventilation until antivenin is administered and can neutralize the venom. Incision, drainage, and suctioning of the bite area are not indicated as little venom is likely to be removed in this manner, and resultant damage to the skin and possible subsequent infection risks outweigh the benefit of any possible venom removal. A pressure-immobilization bandage can be considered to help prevent systemic circulation of venom. Monitoring urine output should also be considered to evaluate for myoglobinuria, and frequent measurement of serum creatinine and electrolytes should be evaluated, and electrolytes supplemented as needed. In the absence of antivenin, hemodialysis can be considered and, theoretically, could be helpful in refractory cases given the small protein size (6,000 to 8,000 daltons) of the neurotoxin. [1]

Differential Diagnosis

• Cobra envenomation

• Rhabdomyolysis

Prognosis

Due to the low LD50 of sea snake venom, morbidity, and mortality rates are high without appropriate treatment. However, if supportive care, including mechanical ventilation as needed for respiratory compromise and antivenin administration, is done early, the overall prognosis is good.

Complications

Complications of sea snake envenomation can include muscle necrosis and myoglobinuria due to phospholipase A. If significant muscle breakdown occurs, the resultant myoglobinuria can lead to elevated creatinine levels and kidney damage. If antivenin is not administered promptly, significant morbidity up to and including death from drowning or respiratory failure can occur.

Consultations

If available, consultation with toxicology for advice regarding the type and dose of antivenin is warranted. Intensive care unit consultation may also be required if a respiratory compromise occurs and mechanical ventilation is needed. If considering hemodialysis, consultation with nephrology is required.

Deterrence and Patient Education

Sea snakes are not aggressive, but they are quite dangerous; therefore, educating patients and the public to avoid contact with sea snakes could dramatically reduce the incidence of sea snake bites. The group that could be potentially impacted the most by education focusing on prevention is fishermen. As most bites occur when fishermen are emptying or entangling their nets, educating them on identifying sea snakes in endemic areas and avoiding contact with sea snakes could be an important preventative measure. Furthermore, if a sea snake bite does occur, educating the population most at risk about potential adverse outcomes such as paralysis and respiratory arrest is important as this education would help potential victims understand that they need to get to definitive care quickly for antivenin administration.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Recognition and early treatment of a potential envenomation by a sea snake are imperative to a successful outcome. [1] Health professionals who are likely to encounter sea snake envenomation should have the skills needed to identify symptoms of sea snake envenomation and the skills needed to provide supportive care up to and including mechanical ventilation if respiratory muscle involvement occurs. [Level 5]

Review Questions

• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

• Comment on this article.

References

1.

Tu AT. Biotoxicology of sea snake venoms. Ann Emerg Med. 1987 Sep;16(9):1023-8. [PubMed: 3307552]

2.

Hornbeak KB, Auerbach PS. Marine Envenomation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017 May;35(2):321-337. [PubMed: 28411930]

3.

Tan CH, Tan KY, Tan NH. Revisiting Notechis scutatus venom: on shotgun proteomics and neutralization by the “bivalent” Sea Snake Antivenom. J Proteomics. 2016 Jul 20;144:33-8. [PubMed: 27282922]

4.

White J. Bites and stings from venomous animals: a global overview. Ther Drug Monit. 2000 Feb;22(1):65-8. [PubMed: 10688262]

5.

Tamiya N, Yagi T. Studies on sea snake venom. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2011;87(3):41-52. [PMC free article: PMC3066545] [PubMed: 21422738]

Disclosure: Justin Fuehrer declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Erwin Kong declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Heather Murphy-Lavoie declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Sea Snake Toxicity – StatPearls

Justin Fuehrer; Erwin L. Kong; Heather M. Murphy-Lavoie.

Author Information and Affiliations

Last Update: April 2, 2023.

Continuing Education Activity

Sea snakes, thought to be the most abundant venomous reptiles on the planet, are found in the warm, tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans but not in the Atlantic Ocean. There are 57 known species of sea snakes and two major subfamilies (Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Sea snakes are not aggressive, although they have been known to bite humans in self-defense or when surprised; this most commonly occurs when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. Envenomation by sea snakes can be a potentially fatal condition if not appropriately treated, as sea snake venom is a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 values. Subsequent respiratory compromise or drowning can occur owing to the paralysis of the diaphragm and skeletal muscles, respectively. Although not all bites result in envenomation, avoidance of sea snakes is the best approach. This activity outlines the evaluation and management of sea snake toxicity and the role of the interprofessional team in improving care for patients exposed to this venom.

Objectives:

• Describe the epidemiology of sea snake bites.

• Outline the signs and symptoms of sea snake envenomation.

• Describe appropriate treatment strategies for those with sea snake envenomation.

• Review the importance of the medical team in coordinating the care of a patient exposed to sea snake venom.

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Introduction

Sea snakes, thought to be the most abundant venomous reptiles on the planet, are found in the warm, tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans but not in the Atlantic Ocean. There are 57 known species of sea snakes and two major subfamilies (Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Sea snakes are not aggressive, although they have been known to bite humans in self-defense or when surprised; this most commonly occurs when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. Envenomation by sea snakes can be a potentially fatal condition if not appropriately treated, as sea snake venom is a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 values. Subsequent respiratory compromise or drowning can occur owing to the paralysis of the diaphragm and skeletal muscles, respectively. Although not all bites result in envenomation, avoidance of sea snakes is the best approach.[1]

Etiology

Sea snakes are not aggressive, although if they feel threatened or surprised, a bite can occur. Fishermen are the most at-risk population for sea snake bites, as contact with sea snakes can occur when fishermen attempt to remove sea snakes from their netting. Much like terrestrial snakes, not all bites result in envenomation.[2] Importantly, sea snakes have small teeth, making it possible for a bite to occur without a person realizing they were bitten until symptoms begin.

Epidemiology

Sea snake bites occur far less frequently than terrestrial snake bites and most commonly occur when fishermen attempt to remove them from fishing nets. The true incidence of sea snake bites is not known as many bites likely occur at sea and in small fishing villages where reporting bites may be difficult. Although sea snake bites occur less frequently than terrestrial snake bites, the potent neurotoxin leads to a high rate of morbidity and, potentially, mortality if not treated rapidly. [3]

Pathophysiology

Sea snake venom contains a potent neurotoxin with low LD50 levels. Several enzymes are present in sea snake venom, including acetylcholinesterase, hyaluronidase, leucine aminopeptidase, 5′- nucleotidase, phosphomonoesterase, phosphodiesterase, and phospholipase A. Sea snake venom acts at both presynaptic and postsynaptic sites. The presynaptic toxin is thought to be due to phospholipase A. This toxin initially causes the release of acetylcholine but, ultimately, the inhibition of acetylcholine release. The postsynaptic neurotoxin is a small protein between 6,000 and 8,000 daltons. This neurotoxin binds nearly irreversibly to the postsynaptic membrane at acetylcholine receptor sites. The net effect of both the presynaptic and postsynaptic toxin is the inhibition of neural impulses which can lead to skeletal muscle paralysis, including paralysis of the respiratory muscles and diaphragm. Other toxins, such as phospholipase A, can cause myonecrosis with resultant muscle breakdown, myoglobinuria, and elevated creatinine and creatine kinase levels. [1]

Toxicokinetics

Sea snake venom is extremely stable. Research has shown that boiling for 30 minutes and dissolving venom in both acidic and basic solutions to a pH range of 1 to 11, respectively, did not significantly change LD50 levels after administration in rats.[1] Therefore, hot water is not indicated for this venom and may, in fact, worsen outcomes by increasing blood flow to the area with the toxins.

History and Physical

Physical exam findings revolve around the blockage of neural impulses and muscle breakdown. Paralysis, dysphagia, muscle spasm, respiratory arrest, and dysarthria can occur, and the most common cause of death in sea snake poisoning is respiratory arrest due to diaphragm paralysis or drowning secondary to skeletal muscle paralysis. Because sea snakes have small teeth, bite marks may be difficult to appreciate, and it can sometimes be difficult for the victim to realize they were bitten until symptoms occur. In general, if no symptoms occur within a few hours after the bite, including both neurologic symptoms and muscle pain from myonecrosis, it is possible that the bite was a dry bite with no envenomation. [2] Approximately 50% of bites are dry bites, and only 50% of the time is there a significant envenomation.[4]

Evaluation

Due to the potential for myonecrosis from phospholipase A, creatine kinase levels may be elevated and myoglobinuria present in urine. No specific laboratory or radiographic tests are required for the diagnosis as clinical history including contact with a sea snake, and typical symptomatology is all that is required for diagnosis. Serum electrolytes and creatinine levels may be helpful to monitor for resultant kidney injury but are not required for diagnosis.[5]

Treatment / Management

Treatment is supportive and requires the administration of antivenin as soon as possible when symptoms of envenomation are present. Removal of the patient from the water is paramount, as skeletal muscle paralysis can cause drowning. Respiratory compromise may also occur owing to diaphragmatic paralysis, and patients may require intubation and mechanical ventilation until antivenin is administered and can neutralize the venom. Incision, drainage, and suctioning of the bite area are not indicated as little venom is likely to be removed in this manner, and resultant damage to the skin and possible subsequent infection risks outweigh the benefit of any possible venom removal. A pressure-immobilization bandage can be considered to help prevent systemic circulation of venom. Monitoring urine output should also be considered to evaluate for myoglobinuria, and frequent measurement of serum creatinine and electrolytes should be evaluated, and electrolytes supplemented as needed. In the absence of antivenin, hemodialysis can be considered and, theoretically, could be helpful in refractory cases given the small protein size (6,000 to 8,000 daltons) of the neurotoxin.[1]

Differential Diagnosis

• Cobra envenomation

• Rhabdomyolysis

Prognosis

Due to the low LD50 of sea snake venom, morbidity, and mortality rates are high without appropriate treatment. However, if supportive care, including mechanical ventilation as needed for respiratory compromise and antivenin administration, is done early, the overall prognosis is good.

Complications

Complications of sea snake envenomation can include muscle necrosis and myoglobinuria due to phospholipase A. If significant muscle breakdown occurs, the resultant myoglobinuria can lead to elevated creatinine levels and kidney damage. If antivenin is not administered promptly, significant morbidity up to and including death from drowning or respiratory failure can occur.

Consultations

If available, consultation with toxicology for advice regarding the type and dose of antivenin is warranted. Intensive care unit consultation may also be required if a respiratory compromise occurs and mechanical ventilation is needed. If considering hemodialysis, consultation with nephrology is required.

Deterrence and Patient Education

Sea snakes are not aggressive, but they are quite dangerous; therefore, educating patients and the public to avoid contact with sea snakes could dramatically reduce the incidence of sea snake bites. The group that could be potentially impacted the most by education focusing on prevention is fishermen. As most bites occur when fishermen are emptying or entangling their nets, educating them on identifying sea snakes in endemic areas and avoiding contact with sea snakes could be an important preventative measure. Furthermore, if a sea snake bite does occur, educating the population most at risk about potential adverse outcomes such as paralysis and respiratory arrest is important as this education would help potential victims understand that they need to get to definitive care quickly for antivenin administration.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Recognition and early treatment of a potential envenomation by a sea snake are imperative to a successful outcome.[1] Health professionals who are likely to encounter sea snake envenomation should have the skills needed to identify symptoms of sea snake envenomation and the skills needed to provide supportive care up to and including mechanical ventilation if respiratory muscle involvement occurs. [Level 5]

Review Questions

• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

• Comment on this article.

References

1.

Tu AT. Biotoxicology of sea snake venoms. Ann Emerg Med. 1987 Sep;16(9):1023-8. [PubMed: 3307552]

2.

Hornbeak KB, Auerbach PS. Marine Envenomation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017 May;35(2):321-337. [PubMed: 28411930]

3.

Tan CH, Tan KY, Tan NH. Revisiting Notechis scutatus venom: on shotgun proteomics and neutralization by the “bivalent” Sea Snake Antivenom. J Proteomics. 2016 Jul 20;144:33-8. [PubMed: 27282922]

4.

White J. Bites and stings from venomous animals: a global overview. Ther Drug Monit. 2000 Feb;22(1):65-8. [PubMed: 10688262]

5.

Tamiya N, Yagi T. Studies on sea snake venom. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2011;87(3):41-52. [PMC free article: PMC3066545] [PubMed: 21422738]

Disclosure: Justin Fuehrer declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Erwin Kong declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Heather Murphy-Lavoie declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Dangerous sea snakes, symptoms after being bitten, first aid

1 Dangerous sea snakes, danger to humans, symptoms after being bitten, types of bites and habitats of sea snakes.

2 When do snakes wake up and when are they most active?

3 What is known about sea snakes?

3.1 Sea snakes Hydrophiinae

4 Is the sea snake dangerous for humans

5 Water snake: features of the snake

5.1 Description of the water snake

5.2 Food and hunting

5.3 Reproduction

6 First aid for an injured person

7 Further actions

8 What should not be done?

9 Is there a vaccine against snake venom?

10 Why urgently go to the hospital

10. 1 Similar entries:

Dangerous sea snakes, danger to humans, symptoms after a bite, types of bites and habitats of sea snakes.

Perhaps, so many printed pages, books and stories are not devoted to any of the “non-existent” creatures, not yet recognized by science, as the mysterious Great Sea Serpent. From time immemorial to the present day, they write, talk, argue about him. Some with irritation and hostility, and some with sincere faith and hope. However, science does not have irrefutable evidence that giant sea snakes live in the depths of the ocean.

When do snakes wake up and when are they most active?

Snakes spend the winter in hibernation and wake up when the air warms up to 5-6 degrees Celsius, and in some places the snow begins to melt on the southern slopes. Then they crawl out of their burrows to bask in the sun. Every year this happens at different times, for example, in 2020 it was a warm March, and in the Tver region the “exit” of vipers was recorded at the beginning of the month. If there are frosts, then the awakening is shifting. The peak of snake activity usually occurs at the end of April – May and ends in June, but their movement in search of a partner, food and winter shelter lasts until September. However, this does not mean that the snake is aggressive all season.

“The snake is not always so active and aggressive,” explains Vladislav Starkov, researcher at the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, herpetologist. “When it’s cold, she lies helpless in the grass, she has a reduced reaction.”

The snakes leave for wintering in October. They winter on hills, on bumps, hills, slopes of ravines.

What is known about sea snakes?

In structure and appearance, sea snakes are somewhat different from their terrestrial relatives. Their body length is from 1 to 3 meters, and their weight is 700-1500 grams. The tail of the sea snake is flattened laterally, which allows individuals to feel confident in the water. The right lung of specimens is sufficiently enlarged, it stretches literally through the entire body and reaches the tail. Reptiles in most cases use it to store air (like fish use their swim bladder). To get a breath of air, water snakes come to the surface. When they dive back to the depth, the nostrils are blocked by a special valve.

One amazing ability of sea snakes is also known. They know how to breathe underwater, using the mucous membranes of their mouths, which are pierced by numerous blood vessels. Being at a depth, the snake slightly opens its mouth, receives a certain amount of oxygen, and can be in the water without emerging for 2 hours.

Many snakes have a rather bright color, light stripes and dark rings alternate on their skin. The exception is the bicolor bonito and a few other, less common species.

Sea snakes feed mainly on fish and shellfish. The bite of specimens is characterized by increased toxicity. This is due to the fact that cold-blooded fish are less resistant to poison.

Sea snakes Hydrophiinae

Sea snakes live in the Indian and Pacific oceans. About 63 species of these snakes have been described.

The sea serpent is a dangerous creature.

Body size varies between 0.8-2.7 meters depending on the species. The body of these snakes is compressed from the sides to the tail so much that the tail resembles a kind of leaf. Thanks to this tail, snakes swim well and dive to considerable depths. The head is small. The mouth is dotted with a network of blood vessels, thanks to which the snake can breathe oxygen dissolved in water. When the snake is immersed in water, its nostrils are closed with special valves. The language of these snakes is reduced.

Most sea snakes are viviparous. Newborn babies can immediately swim well.

All types of sea snakes have a strong venom, which is why they were long attributed to asps. Poison is mainly used to immobilize the victim and is used very sparingly. Sea snakes feed on fish. They attack people only in rare cases, when a person himself provokes a snake. A few hours after the bite of a sea snake, death occurs by suffocation.

Are sea snakes dangerous for humans

Despite the fact that the venom of the sea snake is highly toxic, it does not pose a significant threat to humans. Individuals use their sharp and poisonous teeth to kill prey, but rarely use them for self-defense.

Many people say that you can handle a sea snake. Without fear, many fishermen do this, in whose nets there are specimens.

But don’t pick up every sea snake. Experienced fishermen warn that the Dubois sea snake is very dangerous. In terms of toxicity, it is second only to the Australian brown snake and taipan. Keep in mind that individuals are found on the coast of Australia.

If you are bitten by a sea snake, it is better to play it safe and go to the nearest emergency room. Local doctors will give an injection with an antidote and stabilize the condition of the victim. If the toxic substance has time to spread throughout the body, paralysis of the respiratory tract may occur.

These are the sea snakes. Some of them do not harm a person, while others can inflict a fatal bite. If you do not understand their types, it is better not to take a reptile in your hands. Spread this information through your social networks and help your friends learn more about sea snakes. Don’t forget to subscribe to our channel and leave comments. Ahead of you is waiting for a lot of interesting things about the world of fish and seafood.

See also: How to protect yourself from a bear. This is a species close to the common snake and in many respects similar to it, but at the same time, it has its own characteristics. The very name of this snake suggests that it is closely connected with the aquatic environment.

Description of the water snake

This is a relatively large snake: body length can reach 130 cm, but more often 80-90 cm. Internasal shields are triangular in shape. The suture between the premaxillary and first upper labials is much longer than between the premaxillary and nasal.

Scales covering the body and tail from above, with well-defined longitudinal ribs. The ribs are absent on one row of scales adjoining the ventral scutes and weakly visible on a row of scales adjoining the undercaudal scutes.

The color of the dorsal side varies from olive-dark olive to brownish-dark brown, often with dark staggered spots.

The water snake differs from the common snake in that it does not have yellow spots on its head. Its feature is a V-shaped spot on the back of the head, facing forward with the tip.

The ventral side in males is reddish, in females it is yellowish or orange with dark transverse spots on the ventral scutes, gradually replacing the main background on the ventral side from the neck to the tail.

The coloration of juveniles is similar to that of adults, only their undersides are whitish.

The pupil of the water snake is round, the iris is yellowish, with gray dots.

Food and hunting

Water snakes feed mainly on fish, and to a lesser extent on amphibians. They hunt very actively and catch fish, looking for it mainly at the bottom. If a fish swims up to a stationary snake, it grabs its prey with one vigorous throw, but if it misses, it does not swim after it.

According to the observations in the aquarium, snakes swallow the captured small fish right there under water. Large prey is usually eaten on the shore. Often grabbing a fish by the tail, the snake hurries to the shore and, grabbing a stone with its body, tries to pull it out of the water.

Reproduction

The mating season begins in April – early May, and the laying of eggs occurs in late June – July. A clutch usually contains 6 to 18 eggs. Egg laying for each female lasts several hours. In freshly laid transparent eggs, embryos are clearly visible, which begin to develop even in the body of the female.

Eggs are incubated for 40-50 days. Young snakes are active, crawl quickly, and in appearance do not differ from adults in any way, except for their size. Their body length is 16-19 cm. In the latter case, there are only painful sensations from the bitten skin. The bite of non-venomous reptiles does not pose a health risk. A bite from a venomous snake is considered an emergency, and therefore a number of actions should be taken promptly. Experts advise in this case not to panic, but to adhere to the following algorithm.

First of all, calm down the victim. To prevent the poison from spreading through the circulatory system, you need to reduce blood flow. For this purpose, the victim is placed on a flat surface. At this stage, it is desirable to get rid of jewelry (if any on the body). The fact is that after a bite, severe puffiness forms, and therefore you will have many additional problems with jewelry. Further, the bitten place is fixed by means of the tire. It’s important that it stays still. Then they suck out the poison. For this purpose, use a rubber pear. If this device is not available, you can remove the poison by mouth. The main thing is that there are no lesions on the mucous membrane. To eliminate the poison for sure, experts advise making several small incisions around the wound.

What to do next

After giving first aid, the affected area of ​​the body should be compressed with a bandage. It is important that the vessels fully function at the same time, and therefore it is not necessary to tightly tighten the bandage. To reduce the concentration of toxic substances that enter the bloodstream with poison, the victim should drink plenty of water. It may be that after a bite, the victim goes into shock or serious complications are observed. In this case, they resort to indirect heart massage and artificial respiration, and then the patient is hospitalized.

What can not be done?

There are some manipulations performed by ignorant people. This can lead, at best, to serious consequences and complications, at worst, to death. For example, some of the affected area is cauterized or ice is applied to it. Some provide “help” with warm or hot compresses. After being bitten by a venomous snake, it is forbidden to drink alcohol. There is also no need to fuss, as well as to be highly active. This is explained by the fact that physical activity increases blood flow, as a result of which the absorption of the poison will occur faster.

Is there a vaccine against snake venom?

Anti-snake serum available. If you go from half an hour to three or four hours to the clinic, and there is anti-snake serum, then you will have minimal complications for a snake bite. They exist throughout the Altai Territory, only in the system of disaster medicine, that is, in every large district of the Altai Territory.

Why urgently go to the hospital

— Who is most at risk of being bitten by a snake?

— In our region, mainly snakes of the viper family live. The predominant effect of their poison is local. Its concentration and dose can kill a bird. The life of an adult and healthy person will not be threatened by such a poison.

But if a viper bites a child or an elderly person, it can be dangerous.

Children have low body weight, and the elderly have reduced body reserves. There may be a threat to life.

— What kind of help will be provided in the hospital?

In the clinic, the victim will be given anti-snake serum. Usually hospitals have a serum for the venom of a specific snake that is found in a given region.

Unfortunately, serum is not always available in district hospitals. In this case, the victim will be given droppers and therapeutic treatment for allergic manifestations will be applied. The doctor will observe the patient and assess the general condition, including how the heart works. They will do a blood test to see if the clotting is broken.

Similar entries:

Sea snakes, danger to humans, symptoms after a bite, types of bites and habitats of sea snakes.

sea snakes, fireworms and biting fleas in resorts / Chip.Travel Blog

If not you, then an acquaintance of an acquaintance must have stepped on a sea urchin or burned himself on a jellyfish.

There are many creatures in the sea that you should be wary of meeting. It’s even better to know where to run and what to do in case of injury or a bite from a fish. We have collected useful information about marine life at popular resorts for you. Remember the first aid measures and behave with them carefully!

And pay attention to the flags on the beach

Jellyfish

Air creatures can be incredibly dangerous. Their stinging cells contain poison. The most dangerous jellyfish that you can meet on the beach: a yellow round box jellyfish and a beautiful blue-violet “Portuguese man-of-war” jellyfish.

Portuguese Boat Jellyfish

Box Jellyfish (Sea Wasp)

Where meets: Beaches in South East Asia, Mediterranean, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Safety measures : try not to go to the beach after a storm – jellyfish are washed ashore and the chance to meet them is very high.

If you are stung by a jellyfish, call a doctor. After a bite, do not rub the wound or pull out the sting. While waiting for help, you can apply a dry compress and rinse the area with sea water. And forget fairy tales about miracle cures for urine, vinegar and alcohol!

Sea fleas

Let’s say right away that sea fleas bite very rarely, but the consequences of bites appear immediately. Miniature insects can cause unpleasant rashes and irritations. All fleas bite – both females and males. But only irritation and itching will remain from the bites of males, and the consequences of female bites are more serious. These fleas stick to a person and drink blood, so the bite can become inflamed and fester if the body of an insect remains in it.

Sea fleas can be found along the surf line, in seaweed thrown up by the storm. And yet – a large colony can make quiet sounds. Hear a barely noticeable howl on a wild beach? Then it’s better not to walk barefoot on the sand!

Where meet: on sandy beaches. In Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam), India, South America, Africa, even on the Black Sea coast in Russia.

Safety measures : do not swim at dawn and dusk, do not walk barefoot on a wild beach, wash your feet after walking on the sand. If a flea has bitten and nothing but itching bothers you, take an antihistamine and anoint the wound with a soothing cream. If the head of an insect is visible in the wound, there is pus, then you need to go to the hospital. Trying to get a flea on your own with oil, like a tick, will not work.

Fireworms

Despite the creepy name, they look very nice: a bright orange caterpillar with fluffy white bristles. It can reach 40 cm in size, but usually about 10 cm. Some wildlife lovers find it difficult to restrain themselves from grabbing a handsome man in their hands. In no case should this be done: the worm instantly parted with its bristles, they scatter in the water and pierce directly into the hands. In the spines are capsules with poison containing a neurotoxin. The skin turns red, swells, dizziness and nausea begin.

Where meet: The Mediterranean Sea, the shores of the Adriatic.

Safety measures : do not swim on wild beaches – fireworms accumulate right in the shallow water between the stones. They themselves are shy and non-aggressive, they will not attack unless they are disturbed. If you dive on an unequipped beach, wear rubber slippers – they will protect your feet.

If you are injured by a fireworm, remove the poison capsules. Use tweezers if you see thorns, or regular tape if the bristles are not visually visible. After that, the wound should be wiped with alcohol. And do not forget to see a doctor – if the lesion is large, you will be prescribed antibiotics.

Sea urchins

Walking along the water’s edge, you can easily step on a sea urchin hidden in the rocks. The main danger is sharp needles up to 30 centimeters long. If one of them digs into the leg, it can ruin the vacation. The foot swells, the temperature rises, the wound fester.

Where meet: Coast of North and South America, New Zealand, Red and Mediterranean Sea. They live in stones, they are rare on sandy beaches. Often seen on wild beaches.

Safety measures : Rubber bathing slippers can save. When you enter the water, carefully inspect the bottom, be vigilant while diving. If the thorn of the hedgehog still attacked you, do not try to take it out yourself: it is very fragile and will break easily. It is better to immediately go to the hospital.

If there is no way to go to the hospital, you can first hold the barbed leg in hot water, and then gently pull it out. Treat the wound with an antiseptic.

Lionfish (zebrafish, lionfish)

Lionfish, zebrafish or lionfish are beautiful striped creatures with large fins that contain a dangerous venom. You can meet fish while diving. She lives near coral reefs, in shallow water. It is quite possible to observe her from afar – she does not attack herself. But if you disturb a zebra fish, it will release its fins-thorns with poison. It will hurt, fainting and even muscle paralysis is possible.

Location : Red Sea, Indian Ocean

Safety Precautions : Avoid disturbing lionfish while diving. If you have already run into a dangerous thorn, wash the wound with hydrogen peroxide and, if found, treat it with Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) – this will help neutralize the poison. Then dip in hot water up to 45 degrees so that it does not burn. It will get better in 10-15 minutes. After that, disinfect the wound again and take an antihistamine.

Watch a video on how to avoid being bitten by fish

Sea snakes

It’s Serious : Water snakes produce more toxic venom than their terrestrial counterparts.

The good news is that a bite releases very little of this venom to seriously harm a person. Only 2 types of sea snakes are deadly. But a meeting with the safest of them cannot be called pleasant – the bite will hurt, tumors, swelling, allergies, weakness are possible. In the water, animals do not attack and try to hide as soon as possible. But if the snake was thrown onto land, you definitely shouldn’t touch it.

Where meet: the warm seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, most of all in the South China Sea.

Precautions : Do not touch sea snakes. They are shy and will not attack themselves. If you manage to get a snake bite, you do not need to wipe it with vinegar. And do not try to “treat” with alcohol – this contributes to the expansion of blood vessels and the rapid absorption of poison. You can try to suck out the poison with a blood-sucking jar, syringe or mouth (but only if there are no wounds in the mouth).

Skates

Most of the time the animals are motionless, so they can be overlooked in the sand. But if you disturb the stingray, it will be forced to sting. Feel pain, dizziness, weakness. You should be worried if the stingray wounded in the chest or stomach. If the stingray stung in the leg or arm, then there is no danger to life. The main thing is to properly treat the wound.

Where meet: Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean.

Precautions : do not walk on wild beaches barefoot, wear rubber slippers. If stung by a stingray, first rinse the wound with sea water. Treat with hydrogen peroxide, place the limb in warm water and hold for at least 30 minutes. Take an antihistamine. After that, the pain should subside. Clean the wound with soap and water on the following days. If there are signs of suppuration, consult a doctor.

Anemones (anemones)

Do you think these are beautiful flowers underwater? No, these are living creatures – anemones from the order of sea cnidarians. Outwardly, they look like ordinary grass, only the colors are brighter, and the leaves are fleshier.