How do stingrays attack humans. What are the symptoms of stingray envenomation. How is stingray envenomation treated. What are the potential complications of stingray stings. How common are fatal stingray attacks. What preventive measures can be taken against stingray injuries.

Understanding Stingray Attacks and Their Mechanism

Stingrays are typically docile marine creatures that only strike when provoked or startled. The majority of stingray attacks occur when unsuspecting individuals accidentally step on these flat-bodied fish in shallow waters. When threatened, stingrays employ a defensive mechanism similar to that of a scorpion, rapidly lashing their tail upward to deliver a painful sting.

The stingray’s tail contains a sharp, serrated barb located along its proximal third. This barb is usually concealed within an integumentary sheath and can deliver a potent cocktail of enzymes capable of causing tissue necrosis. The barb’s structure is particularly dangerous due to its proximal serrations, which can cause extensive damage to soft tissues, tendons, and ligaments when removed from the wound.

Anatomy of a Stingray’s Stinger

• Composed of cartilage
• Serrated edges directed proximally
• Encased in a venomous integumentary sheath
• Capable of penetrating deep into tissue

In approximately 5% of reported cases, the barb may break off and remain lodged in the wound, further complicating treatment and recovery.

The Composition and Effects of Stingray Venom

Stingray venom is a complex mixture of bioactive compounds that can cause severe pain and tissue damage. The venom is released into the wound when the integumentary sheath ruptures upon impact. Understanding the composition of this venom is crucial for developing effective treatments and managing symptoms.

Key Components of Stingray Venom

1. Serotonin (neurotransmitter)
2. 5-nucleotidase (enzyme)
3. Phosphodiesterase (enzyme)

Serotonin is primarily responsible for the intense pain associated with stingray envenomation. The enzymes 5-nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase contribute to the severe tissue necrosis often observed in stingray injuries.

Are all stingray stings accompanied by envenomation? No, but studies indicate that up to 75% of reported stingray injuries involve the release of venom into the wound.

Symptoms and Immediate Effects of Stingray Envenomation

The symptoms of stingray envenomation can vary in severity but typically include intense, immediate pain at the site of injury. This pain is often described as disproportionate to the size of the wound and can persist for several hours or even days without proper treatment.

Common Symptoms of Stingray Envenomation

• Severe localized pain
• Swelling and inflammation
• Bleeding from the puncture site
• Nausea and vomiting
• Muscle cramps
• Weakness or dizziness

In some cases, victims may experience systemic symptoms such as diaphoresis, cardiac arrhythmias, tremors, skin rash, headache, delirium, fever, hypertension, syncope, and anxiety. However, the full extent of systemic effects from stingray envenomation is not yet fully understood and may vary between individuals.

Treatment Protocols for Stingray Envenomation

Prompt and appropriate treatment is crucial in managing stingray injuries and minimizing complications. The primary goals of treatment are to alleviate pain, prevent infection, and promote wound healing.

Immediate First Aid Measures

1. Remove the victim from the water to prevent drowning
2. Control bleeding by applying direct pressure to the wound
3. Immerse the affected area in hot water (as hot as can be tolerated without burning, typically 110-114°F or 43-46°C) for 30-90 minutes
4. Clean the wound thoroughly with soap and fresh water
5. Remove any visible foreign material or barb fragments

Why is hot water immersion recommended for stingray stings? Hot water helps to denature the heat-labile proteins in the venom, reducing pain and potentially limiting tissue damage. It also promotes vasodilation, which may help to remove the venom from the wound site more quickly.

Medical Treatment

After initial first aid, medical attention should be sought, especially for severe cases or wounds to sensitive areas. Medical treatment may include:

• Tetanus prophylaxis
• Antibiotic therapy (often with fluoroquinolones or doxycycline)
• Pain management (NSAIDs or opioids)
• Wound exploration and debridement if necessary
• Imaging studies to check for retained foreign bodies

In cases of delayed treatment or signs of infection, hospitalization may be required for intravenous antibiotics and more intensive wound care.

Potential Complications and Long-Term Effects

While most stingray injuries are not life-threatening, they can lead to significant complications if not properly managed. Understanding these potential issues is crucial for healthcare providers and patients alike.

Common Complications

• Secondary bacterial infections
• Delayed wound healing
• Tissue necrosis
• Retained foreign bodies (barb fragments)
• Scarring

In rare cases, more severe complications can occur. For instance, there have been reports of osteomyelitis developing in the ankle several months after a stingray strike. This underscores the importance of proper initial treatment and follow-up care.

Can stingray envenomation cause long-term disability? While uncommon, severe cases of stingray envenomation, particularly those involving deep tissue damage or complications like osteomyelitis, can potentially lead to long-term functional impairment or chronic pain.

Fatal Stingray Attacks: Rarity and Notable Cases

Fatal stingray attacks are extremely rare, with only a handful of cases reported globally. However, these incidents have garnered significant attention due to their unusual nature and the high-profile victims involved.

The Steve Irwin Incident

One of the most well-known fatal stingray attacks involved Steve Irwin, the famous “Crocodile Hunter,” who died on September 4, 2006. Irwin was struck in the chest by an Australian bull ray while snorkeling. The stingray’s barb pierced his heart, leading to his rapid death. This incident brought worldwide attention to the potential dangers of stingrays, despite their typically docile nature.

Other Notable Cases

Prior to Irwin’s death, only three fatal stingray envenomations had been reported in Australia’s history. In October 2006, just a month after Irwin’s death, James Bertikas from Florida survived a similar injury where a 2.5-inch barb penetrated his left lung and migrated into his heart. Unlike Irwin, Bertikas did not remove the barb, which may have contributed to his survival.

Another tragic case involved a 12-year-old boy who died six days after being struck by an “airborne” ray. Initially treated for minor puncture wounds, he later succumbed to sequestered venom and myocardial necrosis, which led to right ventricular rupture and fatal cardiac tamponade.

These cases highlight that while fatal stingray attacks are rare, they can occur under unusual circumstances or when vital organs are directly impacted.

Prevention and Safety Measures

While stingray attacks are relatively uncommon, taking preventive measures can significantly reduce the risk of injury, especially in areas known for stingray populations.

The “Stingray Shuffle”

One of the most effective ways to avoid stingray stings is to practice the “stingray shuffle” when walking in shallow coastal waters. This involves shuffling your feet along the sandy bottom instead of taking normal steps. The vibrations and disturbance caused by shuffling alert nearby stingrays, giving them time to move away.

Additional Safety Tips

• Wear protective footwear when wading in shallow water
• Avoid areas with known high stingray populations, especially during peak seasons
• Be cautious when handling caught stingrays while fishing
• Educate yourself about local marine life and potential hazards before entering unfamiliar waters
• Consider using a long stick or pole to probe the area ahead of you when walking in murky water

By following these precautions, individuals can significantly reduce their risk of encountering stingrays and suffering from painful envenomations.

Research and Future Directions in Stingray Envenomation Treatment

As our understanding of stingray venom and its effects on the human body continues to grow, researchers are exploring new avenues for treatment and prevention of complications from stingray envenomation.

Current Research Focus Areas

• Development of more effective antivenom
• Improved pain management protocols
• Novel wound healing techniques
• Better understanding of long-term effects of envenomation

One promising area of research involves the use of advanced imaging techniques to detect and locate retained barb fragments, which can be a source of ongoing complications if left undetected.

Are there any potential medical applications for stingray venom components? Interestingly, some researchers are investigating the potential therapeutic uses of certain stingray venom components, particularly in the fields of pain management and cancer treatment. However, these studies are still in early stages and require further investigation.

Improving Public Awareness and Education

In addition to medical research, efforts are being made to improve public awareness about stingray safety and first aid measures. This includes developing more comprehensive educational programs for beachgoers, fishermen, and marine enthusiasts.

By combining advancements in medical treatment with improved public education, the goal is to reduce the incidence and severity of stingray envenomations worldwide.

As research progresses, it’s likely that we’ll see more targeted and effective treatments for stingray envenomation, as well as better strategies for preventing these painful and potentially dangerous marine encounters.

Stingray Envenomation of the Foot: A case report

by Al Kline, DPM¹

The Foot & Ankle Journal 1 (6): 4

Stingrays are docile marine animals that only strike their victim when provoked or startled. Lower extremity and foot envenomation is common when fishing in shallow waters off the beach. The stingray tail has a sharp, serrated barb along the proximal third of the tail that is usually hidden and encased in an integumentary sheath and can deliver painful enzymes causing tissue necrosis. Immediate treatment including rapid cleansing and heat submersion of the foot is recommended after injury. If treatment is delayed, infection from marine bacteria often requires hospitalization including intravenous antibiotics and surgical treatment.

Key words: Stingray envenomation

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.  It permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ©The Foot & Ankle Journal (www.faoj.org)

Accepted: May 2008
Published: June 2008

ISSN 1941-6806
doi: 10.3827/faoj.2008.0106.0004

Stingray envenomation of the foot is a common marine injury. There is an estimated 1500 stingray injuries reported annually in the United States. [1] Usually, a person will be fishing in shallow water and accidentally step on the stingray. This causes an instinctive, defense mechanism of the stingray. The tail will lash upward like a scorpion and penetrate a sharp bard in the lower extremity or foot. The stingray tail has a sharp, serrated barb along the proximal third of the tail that is usually hidden and encased in an integumentary sheath. The stinger barb is made of cartilage and the serrations are directed proximally.

This means, that as the barb penetrates, the barb can rip tissue or even lacerate tendons, ligaments and other soft tissue as it pulls away from the puncture site. (Fig. 1) The integumentary sheath that encases the barb also contains a venomous protein that is released into a wound when the barb strikes and the sheath ruptures. This will cause intense pain and tissue necrosis. The barb can remain or break off in the wound. Fortunately, this only occurs in about 5% of reported cases. [2,6]

Figure 1  The serrated stingray barb.  The barb is encased in an integumentary sheath.  The serrated spines are directed proximally and can cause extensive tissue damage when pulled from a wound.

Envenomation occurs in up to 75% of reported stingray injuries. [6] The stingray venom contains the neurotransmitter serotonin and two enzymes; 5-nucleotidase, and phosphodiesterase. [2] Serotonin is responsible for the intense pain associated with the sting and the 5-nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase enzymes cause intense tissue necrosis.

Fatal envenomation is extremely rare and has recently come to light due to the death of “The Crocodile Hunter”, Steve Irwin, on September 4th, 2006. Steve Irwin was snorkeling in water and swam close to an Australian bull ray. (Fig. 2) The ray was startled and lashed its tail upward and pierced Steve Irwin’s heart. He died shortly after pulling the barb from his chest. It was reported at that time that only three fatal envenomations in Australia’s history had been reported before Irwin’s death.

Figure 2   The Australian bull ray or Southern eagle ray (Myliobatis australis).

Interestingly, one month later in October 2006, James Bertikas from Florida was stung by a ray as the barb also pierced his heart. However, he did not remove the barb, and survived his injury. In his case, a 2 ½ inch barb penetrated his left lung and migrated into his heart crossing both the left and right ventricle. [8] Most deaths occur from the actual laceration of a major artery or organ such as the heart from the barb and not the venomous effects.

However, in one report, a 12 year old boy died after envenomation from a freak accident when an ‘airborne’ ray slammed against his chest penetrating the barb into the boys left lung and piercing the pericardium.

The boy was relatively asymptomatic and initially treated for a puncture wound to the chest and knee, but he died six days later from sequestered venom and myocardial necrosis causing right ventricular rupture and fatal cardiac tamponade. [2,6] Another reported case involved a man who sustained a laceration to his femoral artery and bled to death. [2] In most cases, stingray injuries are not life-threatening, but can cause long-term complications. In one report, osteomyelitis of the malleolus resulted from an ankle strike seven months after injury. [6]

The effects of envenomation are not clearly understood as to reported systemic effects. Common reported symptoms can include diaphoresis, nausea, cardiac arrhythmias,tremors, skin rash, headache,delirium, fever, hypertension, syncope, anxiety and a host of other common allergic reactions.

Another complication from injury is the seawater and bacteria that can enter a wound on penetration during this injury.

We present the case of a 31 year old male who stepped on a stingray while fishing. He delayed initial treatment, continued to fish and developed cellulitis with a painful foot which required hospitalization and surgical treatment.

Case Report

A 31 year-old male presented to the emergency room with a hot, swollen foot. He was fishing in shallow water the day before and was stung by a stingray. He felt a sharp pain to the top of his foot. He continued to fish most of the day. In the evening, his foot swelling and pain got progressively worse. His wife went to the internet and realized that submerging the foot in hot water would eliminate the pain. He submerged the foot in water and his pain dissipated that evening. In the morning, he had a progressive increase in pain and presented to the emergency room for treatment.

Clinical evaluation revealed a small puncture wound to the dorsolateral aspect of the right foot. (Fig. 3) There was increased soft tissue swelling with slight tissue crepitus. His laboratory data revealed a 16,000 white count with a left shift. Routine radiographic evaluation showed an area of gas in the region of the puncture wound, but no sign of barb. (Fig. 4)

Figure 3   A small puncture wound is see to the dorsolateral aspect of the foot consistent with a stingray envenomation.  The central puncture wound will have signs of tissue necrosis.

Figure 4   Radiographic evaluation reveals soft tissue gas formation in the subcutaneous tissues of the dorsal foot.  No barb is seen on radiograph.

It was recommended he go directly to the operating room for incision and drainage with exploration of the wound.

Surgical exploration revealed soft tissue necrosis through the subcutaneous layer from the initial envenomation. All soft tissue was removed and sent for deep tissue culture. Some local debris was flushed from the wound, but no barb was located. The wound was thoroughly irrigated with Betadine solution and Bacitracin irrigation. The wound was then loosely packed and the edges of the incision were loosely approximated. (Fig. 5)

Figure 5    It is important to open the puncture site and remove any necrotic tissue and explore for foreign material that may cause continued infection.  Necrotic tissue is removed, the edges of the wound can be loosely approximated and the central injury point may granulate and heal by secondary intention.

Tissue cultures revealed Staphylococcus aureus. He was placed on IV Levaquin. His initial infection took about a week to resolve and he was discharged from the hospital. He continued local wound care and within 2 weeks of his injury, the wound closed. (Fig. 6)

Figure 6  The wound is now closed and the patient has returned to work without incident.

Discussion

It is important to initially submerge the foot into hot water after the incident. Rapid application of heat will denature the enzymes causing the pain and limit the effects of tissue necrosis. It is recommended that immediate submersion into hot, but not scalding, water will also help to ease the pain of this injury.

It is recommended to submerge the foot into a water temperature of 42 to 45 degrees Celsius (108-113 degrees Fahrenheit) for 30 to 90 minutes, or until the pain resolves. [3] Infection of the wound can usually be avoided with aggressive wound cleansing and oral antibiotics.

In cases where cellulites results in delayed treatment or is not responsive to oral antibiotics, hospitalization and intravenous antibiotics is recommended. The most common pathogens to infect the wound include Staphylococcus aureus and streptococcus species. Water-borne pathogens of concern include Vibrios vulnificans in salt water and Aeromonas species in fresh water.

In more serious lacerations, it is important to immediately control hemorrhage from the laceration by applying direct pressure to the wound. Applying a tourniquet to the extremity is not recommended because swelling and systemic effects are rare in extremity wounds. [2] The wound should always be cleansed thoroughly with an antibacterial wound cleanser immediately after injury. Hexachlorophene in 70% alcohol (pHisoHex®) or Betadine solution will provide good antibacterial cleansing of the wound. [6]

Although there is no antidote or anti-venom , it has also been reported that direct injection of 1% lignocaine (or lidocaine) may have an anti-venomous affect to the venom that remains in the wound. [6] If the patient presents some time after injury to the emergency room with a hot, swollen foot, it is important to incise and open the puncture site, even if no barb is present. Intravenous antibiotic therapy is recommended until the cellulites has resolved. Hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of stingray envenomation has also proved to be beneficial. [4]

Tetanus prophylaxis should also be current. Levofloxin or Levaquin is the drug of choice against Vibrio species and will cover Staphylococcus aureus and multi-drug, gram-negative organisms common to penetration injuries. Bactrim and Doxycyline are also good against Vibrio species, although the coverage is not as good for staph and strep species. [3]

Of course, antibiotic treatment can be tailored to the results of deep tissue samples taken at time of surgery to determine the infective organism. At time of surgery, it is recommended to inspect the wound for foreign material, remove any necrotic tissue, take deep tissue biopsy for culture and leave the wound packed open. Packing can include Betadine gauze or calcium alginate. Calcium alginate dressing or Kaltostat® has been reported to absorb toxin in one report. [7]

Conclusion

Stingrays belong the the class Chondrichthyes meaning cartilaginous fishes. These are usually docile creatures that only strike when provoked or feel threatened. In this case, medical treatment after initial injury was delayed which required surgical treatment and prolonged hospitalization. The delay in initial treatment caused progressive tissue necrosis and secondary infection after injury.

It is important to treat these injuries promptly. If the injury is not life-threatening, it is important to quickly cleanse the wound and submerge the foot in hot water to deactivate the tissue enzymes that cause pain and tissue necrosis. Ideally, medical treatment will consist of radiographs to eliminate the possibility of a barb that may remain in the wound. In the emergency room setting, the wound can be injected with 1% lidocaine and lanced at the puncture site. The wound should then be aggressively irrigated with Betadine. A calcium alginate dressing can then be applied to the open wound and allowed to heal by secondary intention. Oral antibiotics with coverage for gram positive and negative organisms are prescribed at discharge.

References

1. Perkins, A.R., Morgan, S.S.: Poisoning, Envenomation and Trauma from Marine Creatures. American Family Physician, February, 2004 [Online]

2. Ganard, S. Stingray Injuries, Envenomation, and Medical Mangement. [Online article]

3. Meade, J.L. Stingray Envenomations, Emedicine article [Online]

4. Rocca, A.F. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in the treatment of soft tissue necrosis resulting from a stingray puncture wound. Foot Ankle Int. 22 (4): 318-323, April 2001. [PubMed]

5. Perkins, A.R., Morgan, S.S.: Poisoning, Envenomation and Trauma from Marine Creatures. American Family Physician, February, 2004 [Online]

6. Fenner, P.J. et al: Fatal and Non-Fatal Stingray Envenomation. Med Journal Australia : 151:621-625. 1989. [PDF]

7. Fenner, P.J.: Stingray Envenomation: A Suggested New Treatment. Med Journal Australia: 163: 665. 1995 [PDF]

8. St. Petersburg Times [Online news wire], October, 2006.

Address correspondence to: Dr. Al Kline, DPM, 3130 South Alameda, Corpus Christi, Texas 78404. E-mail: [email protected]

¹Adjunct Clinical Faculty, Barry University School of Podiatric Medicine. Private practice, Chief of Podiatry, Doctors Regional Medical Center. Corpus Christi, Texas, 78411.

© The Foot & Ankle Journal, 2008

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Stingrays – photo, description, range, diet, enemies, population

Stingrays are truly unique deep inhabitants. For their appearance, they are often jokingly called flying carpets. These are one of the oldest fish on earth, in the process of existence, which have undergone great external changes. They have many differences from other inhabitants of the deep sea. These amazing fish are found in most parts of the world, from tropical countries to near-Arctic waters, in the shallows and at depths of over 2,700 meters.

Contents of the article:

• Description of the rays
• Species of rays
• Ray diet
• Reproduction and offspring
• Natural enemies
• Population and species status
• Video about rays

Description of rays

Rays are a type of cartilaginous fish of the chordate type, having a flat body and wing-shaped pectoral fins fused to the body and head. The entire body of this fish is represented by a single plane. There are hundreds of types of stingrays. There are about 340 of them in total. According to the system of structure and reproduction, they are close to the marine predator – the shark.

Appearance

The whole body of the stingray fish is rounded to a single diamond shape . It has large pectoral fins extending almost from the muzzle to the base of a thin tail. Some species are characterized by the presence of a sharp nose, the appearance of which provides the location of the rostral cartilage. The color of the slope can be monophonic or differ in a certain pattern. It ranges from light tones, to brown, gray, dark and even all sorts of spotted or patterned. On the body of a stingray, bright contrasting colors can be combined, or the coloring implies complete unity with nature in order to mask on the deep bottom.

This is interesting! The color scheme of the animal depends mainly on the territory of its habitat.

Most of them have spiny or spiny formations on the upper surface of the body. Other species boast of possessing a tail capable of emitting weak electrical discharges. Typical stingrays (Rajidae), which exist in the majority on the planet, have two dorsal fins on the tail. Rays of the species Arynchobatidae have one, while Anacanthobatidae do not have them at all. Mouths and gill openings in all species without exception are located on the underside of the body. Also, all species are united by the method of reproduction, they most often lay eggs, which are often found on beaches, oblong and protected by leathery boxes.

The unusual structure of the stingray’s body led to the fact that its main openings and external organs moved to the lower plane. In this part of the body there is a wide mouth with holes on the sides. In appearance, they resemble the pretty eyes of an animal. However, it is not. The dots act as sprinklers. It is thanks to these holes that the stingray can breathe, distilling water into them for further entry into the gills. The eyes themselves are located in the upper plane of the body. They range in size from large to small and completely inconspicuous when they are hidden in a skin fold, such as a blind stingray.

Such an unusual solution of the stingray’s bodily structure forced the displacement of the animal’s swimming organs. The anal fin is reduced, while the pectorals form one large movable plane with the body, more like the wings of a bird. Their movement is also similar to the process of bird flight. The slope simultaneously raises them, then smoothly lowers them. It is this feature that gives the stingray excellent mobility, as well as the ability to move quickly and jump out of the water to a height of several meters.

This is interesting! It should be noted that not all species use pectoral fins. Some stingrays move with the help of muscular tail movements. In this way, fish with undeveloped small pectoral fins are forced to move.

Also, depending on the species and habitat, the sizes of stingrays also vary. The smallest representative of marine flat inhabitants reaches a length of only 15 centimeters. His name is Indian electric stingray. The largest representative is the sea devil, he is also a manta. This animal reaches a size of 6 to 7 meters, weighing about two and a half tons. Such a fish may well overturn a fishing boat. Although in itself this, albeit a strikingly large species, does not show aggression towards humans.

But this did not prevent him in ancient times from becoming the cause of panic terror that gripped sailors when he jumped out of the water. Its long whip-like tail and huge body made the sound of a cannon shot in the process of falling into the water, which could not but frighten uninformed sailors.

Nature and way of life

Stingrays are fairly common animals around the globe . They can be found both in the polar zones and in the tropics. Some of them annually migrate over long distances, while others vice versa. Some do not leave the warm waters, others stubbornly prefer to roam along the cold currents. Despite the fact that these are solitary animals, they can often be found formed in mass aggregations.

They also occupy different depths. The stingray can live at a depth of 2700 meters, as well as in shallow water. The main similarity of the placement is mainly dwelling at the bottom. Stingrays love to literally burrow into accumulations of silt or sand at the bottom. Their flat body shape is very suitable for bottom dwelling. Basically, these animals live in salty seas and oceans, and only a few species have mastered fresh water. Not afraid to swim away from the coast and the bottom only manta rays. Its gigantic size does not give the animal cause for concern.

How long do rays live

The lifespan of rays depends on their size. The larger the animal, the longer it can survive. Average rates range from 7 to 25 years.

Sexual dimorphism

These animals have pronounced sexual dimorphism. The male differs sharply from the female even in infancy. It’s all about the genitals, which are located in the corners of the ventral fins of the stingray. In infancy, they are represented by small, inconspicuous tubercles; by the time of puberty, the tubercles take the form of oblong tubes, reaching several centimeters in medium-sized individuals.

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Species of Rays

Scientists distinguish between the following orders of rays, including electric, tail-shaped, sawtoothed and stingrays. The species include such names as stingrays, bracken, gnus, guitar, 7 species of sawflies and narcins.

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Rays Diet

Rays are predators by nature. Only the smallest representatives of the species are forced, due to their size, to feed on plankton, small mollusks, octopuses and worms. The rest of the stingrays hunt prey. Larger fish can become a victim of a large stingray.

For example, flounder, salmon, haddock, cod, and sardines. Particularly interesting is the fact that the largest stingray is a manta, a formidable and huge sea devil feeds on small fish and plankton. It filters its food through gill openings like a whale shark. That is why it does not cause any harm to humans.

This is interesting! Other, slightly smaller species show sophisticated hunting methods, the tools for which were given to them by mother nature herself. Most of them are able to accumulate and release a powerful discharge of electricity at the right time.

They hug their prey with their pectoral fins and then electrocute them. For a medium-sized fish, this is quite enough. When a person falls into a trap, he will experience the most powerful pain sensations or, in the worst case, temporary paralysis of the limbs, which, under conditions of being under water, can be fatal. The sawn ray digs in the ground, frightening and driving small fish to the surface, after which it carefully beats it with its elongated saw-shaped process, studded with needles on both sides. Some species chase prey, after which they pierce it with a sharp tail.

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Reproduction and offspring

Stingrays are very interesting animals . They can both lay eggs and give birth to live young. The female throws eggs on algae, the structure of which allows them to successfully attach to them. To do this, there are small strings on the sac of each embryo.

The number of cubs of one female depends on the specific species. For example, a manta gives birth to only one cub at a time, which weighs approximately 10 kilograms. Others produce more. In one breeding cycle, an adult animal can lay from 5 to 50 eggs. The development of the embryos also varies.

This is interesting! Viviparous species, on the other hand, grow embryos in a cavity similar to the uterus of a mammal. Through it, food for them also comes, through its special processes.

As a result of both births, active, formed and viable fry appear. Some of them even have the ability to accumulate an electric charge.

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Natural Enemies

The level of safety of stingrays also depends on their type, or to be more precise, size. Only the manta, the sea devil, can boast of absolute calmness in this regard. Its impressive dimensions allow you to organize almost one hundred percent security. Isolated cases of extermination are only the catches of “brave” fishermen, because the meat of these fish is considered a delicacy in many cuisines of the world.

Other stingrays are forced to take care of their safety, because they often become victims of sharks and other large marine predators. And these fish defend themselves as best they can. Electric species “fight off” with current discharges, pelagic species hope for high maneuverability and speed, living on the bottom prefer not to stick out until nightfall.

Rays also adapt by coloring. Most of them have a light belly – in harmony with the view of the sky from below, and the color of the upper body in the color of the bottom of the area in which it lives.

Stingrays are considered especially dangerous for offenders. About the choice of weapons is clear from the name. The sharp tail of this species is equipped with poisonous cells that can paralyze human skeletal muscles, lower blood pressure significantly, and also lead to other types of paralysis. The toxin from this fish can at best cause prolonged vomiting.

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Population and Species Status

Some skate species are commercially harvested for their tasty wings. It is widely believed that the pectoral fins of some species taste like scallops, so they are ruthlessly caught using trawls.

This is interesting! Unfortunately, even the ramp itself is not always the final goal. Its fins can also be used as bait for lobster fishing.

In addition to commercial fishing, skates are often caught in nets as by-catch. Some species are considered overfished and are protected at the national level, for example, in the USA. There are management plans in place to protect stingray populations through methods such as imposing fishing restrictions and possession bans.

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Stingray Videos

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Tags: batomorphi, breeding, diet, fish, stingray, stingrays, cost, care and maintenance

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Electric Stingrays. Photo and video of electric rays

Electric rays are found throughout the world, but only in temperate and tropical waters. They live on sandy beaches, coral reefs, clay and muddy bays. They can live in deep waters, dropping below 1,000 m.

Appearance of the electric stingray practically does not differ from other stingrays. They can be of various colors: from dark brown to light green, sometimes with large contrasting spots, as if warning of the danger of touch. True, if you look closely, the electric organs are visible on the sides of the fish, looking through the skin.

Electric ramps. Photo and video of electric rays

The amperage generated by rays varies between species. So, for example, the Atlantic “ Torpedo “can produce discharges of 220 Volts. But for most types, this figure is less and is 5-40 Volts. The sizes of these slopes are also different, the maximum length belongs to the same Torpedo and is 1.2 m. with a weight of up to 100 kg But other species are small – up to 50 cm

Electric rays move very reluctantly, preferring to lie on the bottom or burrow into the sand, leaving only their eyes on the surface. They hunt the inhabitants of the seabed – crustaceans and bottom fish, so there is nothing for her to make long voyages in pursuit of prey.

Electric ramps. Photo and video of electric rays

The

Electric Skate is a large natural battery that needs to be recharged periodically. After a discharge, the fish needs some time to gather strength for a new outbreak. At the moment when the ramp is gaining energy after the discharge, you can even try to pick it up (but, of course, it is not recommended).

For a human, an electric stingray poses a threat only when the person himself touches the fish. He himself never shows aggression and does not attack either people or potential predators in the form of sharks, dolphins and killer whales. A person can accidentally step on a stingray hiding in the sand, or try to stroke it under water without understanding its belonging to electric stingrays.

Discharges of a fully “ charged ” stingray are extremely painful, but last for a fraction of a second, so there is no danger of tissue necrosis. Therefore, there were no fatal cases of collision with an electric ramp. The beaches where electric stingrays are found are known, and the main rule followed by divers and vacationers is to look carefully under your feet.

Electric ramps. Photo and video of electric rays

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Electric ramp

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