The endocrine system function and structure: Illustrations of Anatomy, Function, Glands $ Organs

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Endocrine Glands (Structure and Function)

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Endocrine Glands (Structure and Function)

Endocrine means, Endo = within and
Krine = to secrete.
This system consists of ductless glands
of the body.
The secretions are directly poured into
the blood circulation.
The internal secretions of the
endocrine glands are known
as “hormones.”
Hormones are described as the
chemical messengers of the body.
These hormones guide and control the
growth, multiplication metabolic
activities of various tissues and so
many regulatory functions inside the
body.
Endocrine glands are of two types:
1. Holocrine Glands:
These glands secrete only hormones.
2. Heterocrine Glands:
These glands secrete hormones and
have other functions also.
I. Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland is a small body
hanging down from the middle of the
lower surface of the brain. This gland
is about 1 c.m. (0.4 inches) in
diameter. Its colour is reddish grey.
Structure:
Pituitary gland consists of two main
lobes:
1. Anterior lobe or Anterior Pituitary.
2. Posterior lobe or posterior
pituitary.
These two lobes are connected by a
small intermediate lobe.
Functions of Pituitary Gland:
a. Anterior Pituitary:
The Anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland produces a number of
hormones which control the activities
of all other endocrine glands.
Anterior pituitary gland-secretes six hormones
1. Growth Hormone (GH)/ Somatotropic hormone.
2. Thyrotrophic Hormone/ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
4. Follicle -stimulating Hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinising Hormone (LH)
6. Luteotrophin Hormone /Prolactin.
Anterior pituitary gland
1. Growth Hormone: (GH)
This is also known as somato tropic hormone. This
hormone is necessary for the normal growth and
development of the body.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone: (TSH)
This hormone is also known as Thyrotrophic
Hormone. It controls the activities and growth of
thyroid gland.
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone: (ACTH)
This hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to
synthesize its hormones. It also regulates the
activities of Adrenal glands.
4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone: (FSH)
It stimulates the ovary in females to synthesize
oestrogen. It also stimulates the testes in males to
provide spermatozoa.
5. Luteinising Hormone: (LH)
It controls the secretion of oestrogens and
progesterone in the ovary and testoterone in the
testis.
6. Luteotrophin Hormone: (LTH)
The other name of this hormone is prolactin. It
stimulates milk production and secretion in
mammals. It also maintains the uterine growth
and development during pregnancy.
b. Posterior Pituitary:
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes
two hormones:
1. Oxytocin
2. Vasopressin /Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
1. Oxytocin
This hormone has got two functions:
1. It contracts the uterus during delivery or birth of
the child.
2. It also helps in the ejection of milk from the
mammary gland.
2. Vasopressin
This hormone is also known as Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH).
Its functions are:
1. It helps in decreasing urine output
2. Increasing blood pressure
II. Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is situated in the lower part
of the neck and extended on both side of the
Larynx.
It is brownish red in colour. There are two
lobes in thyroid gland, one on each side of the
trachea.
These two lobes are connected by a strip of
thyroid tissue called the “is thumus” which
lies in front of the trachea.
Functions
The thyroid gland synthesizes and
secretes two hormones:
1. Thyroxine (T.4)
2. Trilodothyronine (T.3)
The secretion of thyroid hormones is
controlled by Thyroid stimulating Hormone
(TSH) of Anterior Pituitary Gland. The
thyroid hormones influence growth and
metabolism.
The major functions are
1. Increase in oxygen consumption and heat
production in tissues.
2. Regulation of Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).
3. Increase in the absorption and utilization of
glucose.
4. Helps in physical and mental growth and
development of the body.
5. Increase in the rate of cholesterol synthesis
in liver.
6. Helps in Protein synthesis.
7. Myelination of central Nervous
system.
8. Decrease blood calcium level.
9. Acts as the storage of iodine as
thyroxine is rich in iodine.
10. Regulates the chemistry of the tissues
and stimulates the process of oxidation.
Disorders (Hypothyroidism) of Thyroid
Function
(a)Deficiency of the secretion at birth produces
a cretinism. It produces mental retardation.
(b) Myxoedema occurring after birth. slow
metabolic process, retardation of physical
growth. weight gain, slowness of mind and
speech, skin thickened, dry and hair falls.
(c)Endemic goitre occurs due to deficiency of
iodine in food. It produces enlargement of
the thyroid gland.
Myxoedema
cretinism
Hypothyroidism
goitre
2. Hyperthyroidism (Increased
secretion)
(a) The metabolic rate is raised and the body
temperature may be higher than normal.
(b) Loss of weight, nervousness, high pulse
rate, Cardiovascular symptoms may arise
which can lead to heart failure.
(c) Grave’s disease or exophthalmic goiter is
due to excessive production of thyroid
hormone which produce protrusion of
eyeballs.
III. Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid glands are four small
glands situated two on each side of the
thyroid gland in the neck.
They are embedded on the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland.
The weight of these four glands is about
0.1 to 0.2 gm. These glands are reddish or
yellowish-brown.
Structure
The parathyroid glands are composed of mass
of epithelial cells.
These cells are of two types:
(1) Chief cells
They secrete the parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
or Parathormone.
The secretion of PTH is not under nervous or
hormonal control. A decrease in calcium level
of plasma increases the secretion of PTH and
vice versa.
(2) Oxyphil cells Functions
1. Parathormone increases calcium level of Blood
plasma and extracellular fluid.
2. Regulates calcium metabolism.
3. It decreases blood phosphate level.
4. Mobilizes calcium of bone into the extracellular
fluid, when dietary uptake of calcium is low.
5. Increases reabsorption of calcium in the renal
tubule.
6. Increases the absorption of calcium in the
gastrointestinal tract.
Disorders of Parathyroid Function:
Hypoparathyroidism: (Less secretion)
1. There is deficiency of the calcium content in blood.
It is known as “Hypocalcaemia” which leads to
Tetany.
2. It is characterized by muscular contraction,
convulsions of the hands and feet etc.
Hyperparathyroidism: (Excess secretion)
1. Enlargement of the glands.
2. Calcium balance is disturbed. It
produces “Osteitis fibrosa Cystica.”
3. The calcium may be deposited in the kidney,
causing renal stones and kidney failure.
IV. Adrenal Glands
The adrenal or suprarenal glands are
two in number, which are situated just
on the top of each kidney like a cap.
These are small yellowish glands.
Each adrenal weighs about 5 gms. This
gland is called the gland of emergency.
Structure:
The adrenal glands can be divided into two
parts, whose structure and functions are
also different.
These are:
1. Outer Cortex
2. Inner Medulla
1. Outer Adrenal Cortex:
It is yellowish in colour. This part has three
distinct layers of cells.
They are
i. Zona glomerulose:
It is the outer layer which secretes the
hormone mineralocorticoids.
ii. Zona Fasciculate:
This is the middle layer of the cortex which
secretes glucocorticoid hormones.
iii. Zona Reticularis:
It is the inner layer secreting sex steroids.
Functions of Hormones of Cortex
a. Mineralo Corticoids
These are aldosterone. They help to maintain
electrolyte and water balance of the body
b. Glucocorticoids
These are Cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.
Their functions are:
1. Influence Carbohydrate metabolism
2. Increase Glycogen Synthesis.
3. Breaking down of protein into amino-acids.
4. Mobilize and redistribute fat.
5. Decrease the production of eosinophil’s and
lymphocytes.
6. Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effect.
7. Adaptation of stress.
c. Sex Steroids:
They are androgens in males and oestrogenes in
females. They influence growth and sex
development. The secretion of the hormones of the
adrenal cortex is controlled by Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone (ACTH).
Hypo-secretion of Adrenal Cortex leads to Addison’s
disease which is characterized by loss of weight
hypotension, pigmentation of skin etc.
Hyper secretion produces Cushing’s Syndrome
which is called as Moon Face. It is characterized by
deposition of fat on face, neck, diabetes and
hypertension.
Sex Steroids
2. Adrenal Medulla
This is the inner part of Adrenal glands. It
secretes adrenaline and non adrenaline
hormones.
Functions of Adrenalin Hormone
1. Increases the rate and force of heart beat.
2. This hormone acts as fight and escape from
an enemy.
3. The secretion acts as a chemical whip to
awaken all the organs.
4. It helps constriction of skin and blood
capillaries.
5. The energy level of the body is increased by
this hormone as it raises blood glucose.
6. Helps in dilation of the pupil of the eyes.
7. Relaxation of the intestine can be possible
by this hormone.
Functions of Non-Adrenalin Hormone
1. Helps in constriction of small arteries.
2. Increase the Blood Pressure.
In times of emergency like shock, fear, anger,
danger, the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves stimulate the adrenal medulla, so that
large amount of adrenalin and non-
adrenaline hormones are secreted which
make immediate physiological adjustment.
V. Pancreas
The Pancreas lies under the stomach in front
of the abdominal a orta.
It extends between the C-shaped curvature
of the Duodenum. It performs both exocrine
and endocrine functions.
As an exocrine gland, pancreatic juice is
secreted from the secretory cells “acini”
which helps in the digestion of food. The
endocrine part is called “Islets of
Langerhans.”
Structure of Islets of Langerhans:
The Islets are present mostly in the tail
portion of pancreas. There are one to two
million islets in the pancreas. The islets
contain three major types of cells, the alpha,
beta and delta cells.
1. Alpha cells from 25% of the islets which
secrete the hormone glucagon.
2. Beta cells constitute 60% and secrete
insulin hormone.
3. Delta cells from 10% of endocrine tissues
and secrete somatostatin hormone.
Functions of Hormones
i. Glucagon:
1. It increases the blood sugar level by
breaking down glycogen in the liver to
glucose.
2. It helps in mobilization of stored fat.
3. It releases insulin from pancreas.
ii. Insulin:
1. It decreases the level of glucose.
2. It promotes formation of glycogen from
glucose in the liver and muscles.
3. It prevents fresh synthesis of glucose.
4. Stimulates the utilization of glucose in the
skeletel muscle.
5. Converts glucose into fat in the adipose
tissue.
iii. Somatostatin:
1. It prohibits secretion of insulin and
glucagon from the islets.
2. Decreases secretion and absorption in
the gastrointestinal tract.
3. Slows down the assimilation of food
from intestine.
Decrease in the synthesis of insulin or any
type of disorder gives rise to the disease
Diabetes.
VI. Sex Glands
The Sex glands are:
1. Ovaries in the female which secretes
oestrogen and progesterone.
2. Testes in the male which secretes Testo
styrene.
Production of these internal secretions are
regulated by the Anterior Pituitary
Hormones. During childhood, small amount
of these hormones are secreted. But at
puberty the output of these hormones
increases, causing rapid development of sex
characteristics.
Functions of the Hormones:
Oestrogen:
It is the female sex hormones secreted by the
ovaries.
Its functions are:
1. Regulation of menstrual cycle.
2. Development of secondary sex
characteristics.
3. Development of Mamary Glands.
4. High pitched voice.
5. Deposition of subcutaneous tissue.
6. Growth of hairs in public and axillary
region.
7. Influences the growth and development of
fallopian tubes.
8. It influences behavioral and psychic
patterns in females.
The secretion of oestrogen is controlled by
follicle stimulating hormone of Anterior
Pituitary Gland.
Progesterone:
It is a female sex hormones and its
functions are as follows:
1. Menstruation and development of
uterus and breast.
2. Preparation of the uterus to receive the
fertilized ovum.
3. During pregnancy, this hormone
stimulates growth of mammary glands.
Progesterone is called as the “Hormone of
Pregnancy.”
Testosterone:
This hormone is secreted from the male sex
organ Testes.
The important functions are:
1. Stimulation of spermatogenesis.
2. Promotes growth and activity of prostate,
penis and scrotum.
3. Development of secondary sex
characteristics like moustache, harsh voice.
4. It enhances skeletal and muscular growth.
The secretion of Testes is controlled by
luteinizing hormone of Anterior Pituitary.
VII. Thymus
Thymus gland is present in the upper
chest cavity on the trachea.
It is partly an endocrine gland and
partly lymphoid structure.
It lies behind the sternum but in front of
the heart.
It is pink in colour and is consisting of
two lobes in which a number of lobules are
there.
The thymus is bigger in size at birth. It
grows in size until puberty, then the size
gradually decreases.
Functions:
The hormone secreted is thymosin or
thymine.
Its functions are as follows:
1. It controls the production of lymphocytes.
2. Regulates transmission of minerals in
bones.
3. It plays some role in sexual development.
X. Pineal Gland
It is a small greyish -red gland situated in the
roof of the brain.
It is covered by corpus collosum and cerebral
hemispheres.
The shape of this gland is like a pine cone. It
weighs about 150 mg.
Functions:
Pineal gland secretes several hormones
including melatonin and serotonin.
The functions are
1. The pineal gland appears to function as a
biological clock.
2. It influences the release of Gonadotropic
hormones from Anterior Pituitary Gland.

Structure-Function Relationships in the Vitamin D Endocrine System* | Endocrine Reviews

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Roger Bouillon,

Roger Bouillon

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William H. Okamura,

William H. Okamura

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Anthony W. Norman

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Endocrine Reviews, Volume 16, Issue 2, 1 April 1995, Pages 200–257, https://doi. org/10.1210/edrv-16-2-200

Published:

01 April 1995

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I. Vitamin D Endocrine System

RESEARCH directed at defining the molecular mode of action of vitamin D is currently at its apex. There is now evidence implicating the essential involvement of vitamin D metabolites in a host of cellular processes, including calcium homeostasis, immunology, cell differentiation, and regulation of gene transcription. Further, there is evidence that the hormonally active form of vitamin D, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ [1α,25(OH)₂D₃], may generate biological responses via both regulation of gene transcription as well as via nongenomic pathways, some of which involve opening of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels. In addition, there are many examples of pathological disruption of the normal state in which a drug form of a vitamin D metabolite is proposed to be a (potentially) useful form of treatment, e.g. renal osteodystrophy, psoriasis, leukemia, breast cancer, and osteoporosis.

B. From vitamin to steroid hormone

The importance of the molecule vitamin D in the biological systems of higher animals has been recognized since its discovery by Mellanby in 1920 (1). It was in the interval of 1920–1930 that vitamin D officially became classified as a “vitamin” that was essential for the normal development of the skeleton and maintenance of Ca²⁺ homeostasis. The chemical structure of vitamin D was not determined until 1932 (2), and it was only then that it was apparent that this important nutritional substance was in reality a steroid, more specifically, a secosteroid, indicating that one of the rings of the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring structure (the 9–10 carbon-carbon bond of ring B) was broken (see Section II).

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Endocrinologist and Pregnancy

The endocrine system – its structure, the functions of its endocrine glands and the hormones produced by this system play an important role. The proper functioning of most organs and systems of the human body depends on them. Endocrinologist and pregnancy.

During the period of bearing a child, a serious hormonal restructuring of a woman’s body occurs: the production of individual hormones increases hundreds and even thousands of times. Therefore, the work of the endocrine system largely determines the success of the pregnancy, the successful bearing of the fetus and the birth of a healthy child, and the consultation of an endocrinologist is an important aspect during pregnancy and planning a child.

Endocrinologist and pregnancy

The main dates of a pregnant woman’s contact with an endocrinologist are her registration with an obstetrician-gynecologist and the 24th week of pregnancy. However, if there are indications in the patient’s history: for example, pathologies of the thyroid gland and the endocrine system or adverse test results, monitoring and support throughout the pregnancy may be required.

During the first appointment, the endocrinologist should find out what you need to pay special attention to during the examination. To do this, he learns from a pregnant woman about the diseases she has suffered, requests information about diseases of the endocrine system of the next of kin and whether women in the family had problems with pregnancy and childbirth.

Examination by an endocrinologist consists in feeling the size and shape of the thyroid gland and lymph nodes, measuring pulse and blood pressure. After the examination, the doctor sends for examinations for a more detailed analysis of the patient’s hormonal status: a blood test for glucose and hormones and an ultrasound of the thyroid gland.

Why is it necessary to visit an endocrinologist during pregnancy

Pregnancy is a special state of the female body. Unfortunately, in some cases, its onset can provoke the development of pathologies and diseases even in an absolutely healthy woman.

The most common endocrine disease that occurs in women during pregnancy is gestational diabetes mellitus. It is accompanied by an increased level of sugar in the blood and appears due to the high level of contrainsular hormones due to the inclusion of the hormonal activity of the placenta. Excessive production of such hormones leads to the fact that the production of insulin produced by the pancreas of a woman becomes insufficient to cope with heavy loads on her own.

Pregnancy is an indicator of predisposition to diabetes. Since most often this disease first develops in women during pregnancy, women in whose family there were people with diabetes should pay special attention to their health.

In addition to diabetes, an imbalance of thyroid hormones increases the likelihood of developing the following complications during childbearing:

threatened miscarriage and premature birth;
placental abruption and placental insufficiency;
early or late toxicosis;
increased blood pressure;
postpartum hemorrhage;
infections of the genitourinary system and other diseases in a woman.

On the part of the child, problems with the hormonal background can affect the formation of fetal malformations, including:

chronic fetal hypoxia;
congenital hypothyroidism;
malformations of the nervous system and sensory organs.

WHO experts say that thyroid disorders in pregnant women are the most common cause of mental retardation in children. Therefore, endocrinologists make such serious demands on blood sugar levels in pregnant women.

How an endocrinologist can help during pregnancy

To rule out problems with pregnancy and child development, an endocrinologist prescribes drugs based on the results of the examination. With their help, disturbances in the activity of the endocrine system are corrected, namely, the production of hormones and biologically active substances is suppressed, replaced or stimulated.

Not everyone understands the importance of visiting an endocrinologist and believes that this doctor examines pregnant women superficially. However, this misconception, as well as skipping an examination by an endocrinologist and uncompensated hormonal failure in time, can lead to sad consequences and negatively affect a woman’s future life.

While timely visits to an endocrinologist during pregnancy, identifying problems at an early stage and following recommendations for their correction are the key to the health of the child and the well-being of the expectant mother.

You can get an appointment with an endocrinologist at the Khabarovsk Medical Center “Saiko”, as well as get a consultation with a specialist and undergo mandatory examinations for pregnant women, by calling 917-700.

Ultrasound of the thyroid gland, treatment and diagnostics in Moscow

The thyroid gland is the largest gland of the entire human endocrine system. This system is responsible for regulating a large number of critical functions. This is due to the hormones produced by this organ. The structure of the thyroid gland, which got its name for a reason, is like a shield consisting of two blades resembling butterfly wings. These chambers are located on both sides of the larynx and are connected by a septum, which is called the glandular tissue.

The weight of the “thyroid gland” is normally about 25 grams, but such a modest figure does not make it less significant for human health. This part of the endocrine system consists of two types of cells that produce hormones – follicles and parafollicles.

Thyroid functions

The thyroid gland has the following important functions:

The formation and development of the nervous system in children, which begins to form in the womb.
Protein anabolism, which promotes proper growth and development;
Lowering the level of cholesterol in the blood, which is achieved due to the effect of the hormone thyroxine;
Prevention of loss of glucose from the blood;
Promotes an increase in the speed of heart contractions and their strength.

In order to keep this important organ in good condition and stay healthy, every person should be examined regularly. Otherwise, you can burden your history with diseases such as hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism – an increase or decrease in the functionality of the thyroid gland. The symptoms of both the first and second diseases do not appear immediately, and a situation may occur in which an enlarged endocrine organ can work normally, and an unchanged one can malfunction.

Symptoms of disorders

Stressful situations, nervous and mental disorders, liver diseases, transmission of genital infections, lack of iodine in the body, the effects of radioactive radiation and other factors can provoke malfunctions in the work of the internal organ of the endocrine system. Hereditary predisposition increases the risk of thyroid disease several times.

Symptoms of thyroid dysfunction:

Rapid fatigue, decreased performance, lethargy, drowsiness;
Frequent headaches;
Disorders of the gastrointestinal tract;
Enlargement of the thyroid gland.

In order to assess the condition of the thyroid gland, you need to undergo a full examination by specialists. First of all, you need to donate blood for analysis. The main indicator of the normal functioning of this organ is TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), which stimulates the release of blood hormones. Its increased or reduced amount indicates the presence of the disease.

Examination of the structure of the thyroid gland

Based on a series of examinations, the specialists of our clinic will be able to make the correct diagnosis. In addition to taking a blood test, it is carried out:

Palpation. Based on this research method, a specialist can have an approximate idea of the size of this organ of the endocrine system and the symmetry of the lobes.
Ultrasound of the thyroid gland allows you to determine the size, structure, possible deviations from the norm and the duration of the disease.
Magnetic resonance or computed tomography provides the most accurate examination results.

The endocrine system function and structure: Illustrations of Anatomy, Function, Glands $ Organs

Endocrine Glands (Structure and Function)

Endocrine Glands (Structure and Function)

Structure-Function Relationships in the Vitamin D Endocrine System* | Endocrine Reviews

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Endocrinologist and Pregnancy

Endocrinologist and pregnancy

Why is it necessary to visit an endocrinologist during pregnancy

How an endocrinologist can help during pregnancy

Ultrasound of the thyroid gland, treatment and diagnostics in Moscow

Thyroid functions

Symptoms of disorders

Examination of the structure of the thyroid gland

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