How does salt affect your body. What are the recommended daily sodium intake levels. How can you reduce salt in your diet. What does research reveal about ultra-processed foods and salt intake. How does excess sodium impact blood pressure and heart health.

The Importance of Salt in Your Diet

Salt, also known as sodium, plays a crucial role in maintaining proper bodily functions and fluid balance. Your kidneys are responsible for regulating salt levels in your body at all times. However, it’s important to note that individual sensitivity to salt can vary significantly from person to person.

The American Heart Association has established guidelines for daily sodium intake:

• Adults: No more than 2,300mg of sodium per day
• Adults with high blood pressure: No more than 1,500mg per day

Understanding these recommendations is essential, as excessive salt consumption can lead to various health issues.

The Health Risks of Excessive Salt Consumption

A fundamental principle in understanding the effects of salt on the body is that “water follows salt.” When you consume a high-sodium meal, excess salt enters your bloodstream, causing water to follow suit. This influx of fluid into your bloodstream can result in increased blood pressure.

Over time, persistently elevated blood pressure can have serious consequences:

• Increased stress on the heart
• Higher risk of heart disease
• Potential damage to blood vessels
• Increased risk of stroke

Hidden Sources of Salt in the American Diet

Many people are unaware that the majority of salt in the typical American diet comes from processed foods rather than table salt. Some common culprits include:

1. Bread
2. Pizza
3. Soup
4. Cold cuts
5. Fast food
6. Frozen dinners

Understanding these hidden sources of sodium is crucial for effectively managing your salt intake and maintaining a heart-healthy diet.

Practical Strategies for Reducing Salt in Your Diet

Reducing your salt intake doesn’t have to be a daunting task. Here are some practical tips to help you lower your sodium consumption:

• Increase your intake of fresh fruits and vegetables
• Rinse canned vegetables and beans before cooking or consuming
• Experiment with herbs, spices, lemon, or salt-free seasoning blends to add flavor
• Avoid adding salt to food at the dinner table
• Check nutrition labels for the percentage of daily sodium value
• Choose products labeled “Low,” “Reduced,” or “No” salt

Even a modest reduction of 1,000 mg of salt per day can have significant benefits for your blood pressure and overall heart health.

The Connection Between Ultra-Processed Foods and Salt Intake

Recent research has shed light on the relationship between ultra-processed foods and salt consumption. A 2019 study investigated the effects of an ultra-processed diet compared to an unprocessed diet on various health markers.

Study Details:

• 20 participants (10 men, 10 women)
• Randomly assigned to either an ultra-processed or unprocessed diet for one month
• Results showed weight gain in the ultra-processed diet group and weight loss in the unprocessed diet group
• Salt intake was significantly higher in the ultra-processed diet group

The researchers concluded that limiting ultra-processed foods in your diet may be an effective strategy for reducing salt intake and combating obesity.

Understanding Hypernatremia: When Salt Levels Rise

Hypernatremia is a condition characterized by high blood sodium concentration. It can be classified based on severity and duration:

Classification by Duration:

• Acute: Develops within 48 hours
• Chronic: Persists for more than 48 hours

Classification by Severity:

• Mild: 146-149 mmol/L
• Moderate: 150-169 mmol/L
• Severe: >170 mmol/L

Hypernatremia occurs when there’s an imbalance between sodium and water levels in the body. Understanding the distribution of water in the body is crucial to grasping the concept of hypernatremia:

• Intracellular fluid: Approximately 1/3 of the body’s water (inside cells)
• Extracellular fluid: Approximately 2/3 of the body’s water (blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, interstitial space)

Under normal circumstances, both intracellular and extracellular compartments maintain equivalent solute concentrations (osmolarity), allowing for the free movement of water between spaces. However, the composition of solutes differs between these compartments.

The Physiology of Fluid Balance and Sodium Regulation

The body’s fluid balance and sodium regulation are complex processes involving multiple systems. Here’s a breakdown of the key components:

Osmolarity and Fluid Movement:

Osmolarity refers to the concentration of solutes in a solution. In the body, maintaining equal osmolarity between intracellular and extracellular fluids is crucial for proper cellular function. When osmolarity is imbalanced, water moves across cell membranes to equalize the concentrations.

Role of the Kidneys:

The kidneys play a central role in regulating sodium and water balance. They filter blood, reabsorb necessary substances, and excrete excess water and solutes. The kidneys can adjust sodium and water excretion based on the body’s needs, helping to maintain proper blood pressure and fluid balance.

Hormonal Regulation:

Several hormones are involved in sodium and water regulation:

• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys
• Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion
• Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): Promotes sodium and water excretion

Understanding these physiological processes helps explain why excessive salt intake can disrupt the body’s delicate balance and lead to health issues.

The Global Impact of High Sodium Consumption

Excessive sodium intake is not just an individual health concern; it’s a global public health issue. Here’s an overview of the worldwide impact of high salt consumption:

Prevalence of High Sodium Intake:

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), most people consume too much salt—on average 9–12 grams per day, or around twice the recommended maximum level of intake.

Global Health Consequences:

• Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases
• Higher incidence of hypertension
• Greater likelihood of stroke
• Potential link to stomach cancer and osteoporosis

Economic Impact:

The health consequences of high sodium intake place a significant burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Reducing population salt intake has been identified as one of the most cost-effective measures countries can take to improve health outcomes.

Cultural Variations in Salt Consumption:

Salt intake varies widely across different cultures and regions. Some traditional diets, particularly in Asian countries, tend to be higher in sodium due to the use of soy sauce, fish sauce, and other salty condiments. Understanding these cultural differences is crucial for developing effective global strategies to reduce salt consumption.

Innovative Approaches to Reducing Population Salt Intake

As awareness of the health risks associated with high sodium intake grows, various innovative approaches are being developed to help reduce salt consumption at a population level:

Food Reformulation:

Many food manufacturers are reformulating their products to reduce sodium content without compromising taste. This often involves a gradual reduction of salt over time, allowing consumers’ palates to adjust slowly.

Salt Substitutes:

Researchers are exploring alternative compounds that can provide a salty taste without the negative health effects of sodium. Potassium chloride is one such substitute, though its use must be carefully monitored, especially for individuals with kidney problems.

Education and Labeling:

Clear and easy-to-understand food labeling, combined with public education campaigns, can help consumers make informed choices about their salt intake. Some countries have implemented color-coded systems to indicate high, medium, and low salt content in packaged foods.

Policy Interventions:

Some governments are implementing policies to reduce salt intake, such as:

• Setting targets for food manufacturers to reduce sodium in their products
• Implementing taxes on high-sodium foods
• Restricting marketing of high-salt products, especially to children

Technology-Based Solutions:

Mobile apps and wearable devices that track sodium intake are becoming increasingly popular. These tools can help individuals monitor their salt consumption and make real-time adjustments to their diet.

By combining these innovative approaches with traditional dietary advice, public health officials hope to make significant progress in reducing population-wide salt intake and improving overall health outcomes.

The Future of Salt Research: Emerging Trends and Potential Breakthroughs

As our understanding of the complex relationship between salt intake and health continues to evolve, several exciting areas of research are emerging:

Personalized Nutrition:

Researchers are investigating how individual genetic differences affect salt sensitivity. This could lead to more personalized recommendations for sodium intake based on an individual’s genetic profile.

Gut Microbiome and Salt:

Recent studies suggest that high salt intake may alter the gut microbiome, potentially contributing to hypertension and autoimmune diseases. Further research in this area could provide new insights into the mechanisms by which salt affects health.

Advanced Food Technologies:

Scientists are exploring new food processing techniques that could reduce the need for salt as a preservative while maintaining food safety and quality. This includes the use of high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, and natural antimicrobial compounds.

Salt and Cognitive Function:

Emerging evidence suggests a potential link between high salt intake and cognitive decline. Ongoing research aims to clarify this relationship and explore whether reducing salt intake could help maintain cognitive function as we age.

Environmental Impact of Salt Production:

As sustainability becomes an increasingly important consideration, researchers are investigating the environmental impact of salt production and exploring more eco-friendly alternatives.

Nanotechnology in Salt Reduction:

Scientists are exploring the use of nanotechnology to create salt particles that provide the same taste sensation with less sodium. This could potentially allow for significant reductions in salt content without affecting flavor.

These emerging areas of research hold promise for developing more effective strategies to reduce salt intake and improve public health. As our knowledge expands, we may see revolutionary changes in how we approach salt consumption and its impact on health.

What YOU need to know about the salt in your diet!

By: Corinne Rivard

https://www.shutterstock.com/g/robynm?searchterm=eat%20less%20salt

Have you ever been told by your healthcare provider that you
need to reduce the salt in your diet?

Have you been wanting to lower the amount of salt in your
diet but don’t know where to start?

An important first step to lowering salt in your diet is
understanding how extra salt can affect your health.

This blog will try to breakdown some important facts
about how too much salt in your diet can affect your health.

Why is salt important in
your diet?

Your body needs salt, also called sodium, in order to
function and maintain fluid balance. Your kidneys are in charge of balancing
the levels of salt in your body at all times. However, everybody is different,
and some people are more sensitive to the effects of salt than others.

The American Heart Association recommends adults have no
more than 2,300mg of sodium per day, and 1,500mg per day for adults with high
blood pressure. Knowing these numbers is important because too much salt can
cause health problems.¹

Why is eating too much
salt bad for me?

There is a general rule that “water follows salt”. When
there is too much salt in your bloodstream, for example, after you have a salty
meal, water follows salt right into your bloodstream too. More fluid in your
bloodstream means your blood pressure may increase. Over the long term, high
blood pressure increases the stress on your heart and thus your risk of heart
disease.¹

How can I reduce salt in
my diet?

The majority of salt in the typical American diet comes from
processed foods. These include^1,2:

• Bread
• Pizza
• Soup
• Cold cuts
• Fast food
• Frozen dinners

For most of us, the best way to reduce salt in our diet is
to be aware of what we are putting into our bodies. There are many ways to
reduce salt in your diet. Some things you can try at home include.^1,2

• Eat more fresh fruits and vegetables
• Rinse canned vegetables and beans
• Use herbs, spices, lemon, or salt-free seasoning
  blends
• Avoid adding salt to food at the dinner table
• Look for % of daily value of sodium on nutrition
  labels
• Choose “Low”, “Reduced” or “No” salt food
  products

Even lowering the amount of salt you eat by 1,000 mg a
day can help improve your blood pressure and overall heart health.¹

What does the research
show?

In 2019, a team of researchers investigated the effects of
an ultra-processed diet compared to an unprocessed diet.³

To do this, researchers recruited 20 people, half men and half
women, and randomly assigned them to either an ultra-processed diet or an
unprocessed diet for a month. People in the ultra-processed diet group gained
weight compared to people in the unprocessed diet group who lost weight. The
salt intake was significantly higher in the ultra-processed diet compared to
the unprocessed diet. The researchers therefore concluded that limiting the
amount of ultra-processed foods in your diet may be effective in reducing salt
intake and in treating and preventing
obesity.³

How can I learn more?

Talk to your healthcare provider if you have questions about
your salt intake or high blood pressure. You can also visit the American
Heart Association to read more.

References

1. https://www.heart.org/-/media/data-import/downloadables/pe-abh-why-should-i-limit-sodium-ucm_300625.pdf
2. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/sodium/art-20045479
3. K.D. Hall, A. Ayuketah, R. Brychta, H. Cai, T.
   Cassimatis, K.Y. Chen, S.T. Chung, E. Costa, A. Courville, V. Darcey, et al.
   Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: an inpatient
   randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake. Cell Metab. (2019),
   10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.008. Published online May 16, 2019. https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(19)30248-7

Hypernatremia – where salt goes water follows

by Adam George

Definition

• Hypernatremia refers to a high blood sodium concentration. Hypernatremia can be classified as follows:
  • Acute (<48 hours) or Chronic (>48 hours)
  • Mild (146-149 mmol/L)
  • Moderate (150-169 mmol/L)
  • Severe (>170 mmol/L)
• Sodium concentration is dependent not only on sodium levels but also on water levels in vivo. Water in the body exists either intracellularly or extracellularly, with approximately ¹⁄₃ of the body’s water being intracellular and ²⁄₃ being extracellular.
  • Intracellular fluid is simply fluid within the cell, whereas extracellular fluid comprises fluid in blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and the interstitial space.
• Ordinarily both the intracellular and extracellular compartments have equivalent solute concentrations (osmolarity) enabling free movement of water between both spaces. However, they exhibit contrasting solute compositions. Intracellularly, the prevailing anions are phosphate and negatively charged proteins, and the most common cations are potassium and magnesium. Extracellularly, the prevalent anion is chloride, and the most common cation is sodium. It is sodium though that determines the balance of osmolarity. Sodium is continually in flux between both compartments and minute fluctuations in sodium concentration shift the balance of osmolarity, precipitating the movement of water. Fundamentally, water follows the migration of sodium.
• In hypernatremia, a high extracellular sodium concentration (thus a high blood sodium concentration) can materialise either via the loss of more water than sodium, or the acquisition of more sodium than water. In both instances the result is the same – the extracellular sodium concentration is increased, and water is drawn out of the cell.
• In protracted instances of sodium imbalance, the body can adapt via the intracellular production of sodium, preventing water loss due to osmosis. However, in acute scenarios adaptation is not possible and water flows out of the cell faster than it able to be replaced. This leads to crenation (shrivelling) of the cell and potential cell death.

Causes

• For hypernatremia to occur there are then three possibilities.
  • Decreased intake of water
  • Increased excretion of water
  • Increased intake of sodium

Decreased Water Intake

• Insufficient water intake: The most common cause of hypernatremia is inadequate intake of water. This is usually due to either water being unavailable (eg: lack of communication in paediatric or dementia patients), or impairment of the urge to drink (hypothalamic dysfunction).

Increased Water Loss

• The hypothalamus: – via the kidneys – can be responsible for causing hypernatremia in several ways. After the nephrons produce urine, a portion of the water contained in the filtrate is reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. The amount of water reabsorbed is dictated by the hypothalamus. When dehydrated, the hypothalamus stimulates the release of ADH (also known as arginine vasopressin/AVP) from the posterior pituitary gland. ADH, in turn, acts on the receptors at the nephrons and triggers increased water uptake.
• Central diabetes insipidus: Incapacitation of the hypothalamus’ functioning subverts the body’s ability to reabsorb water. This results in greater amounts of water lost through more dilute urine, and a consequently higher blood sodium concentration. En masse, this phenomenon is known simply as central diabetes insipidus.
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: Similarly, if hypothalamic function is normal, but the receptors at the nephrons are impaired the result is the same. Namely, higher urine osmolality and blood sodium concentration. Due to the issue originating renally this pathology is referred to as nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
• Diuretic use: (eg: thiazides) can precipitate hypernatremia through excessive water loss.
• Burns: can cause systemic changes which promote a hypercatabolic state and carry an increased risk of water balance disorders.

Decreased Water Intake and Increased Water Loss Combined

• Absence of the urge to drink: Moreover, if the lamina terminalis of the hypothalamus is damaged then the urge to drink can be destroyed. This damage in isolation begets hypernatremia due to lack water consumption. If there is widespread hypothalamic damage however, loss of the urge to drink can be combined with impairment of ADH secretion, precipitating both a lack of water intake and excessive water loss – a particularly precarious constellation.

Increased Sodium Intake

• Excess sodium: Conversely, hypernatremia can be caused by accrual of excessive amounts of sodium. This most frequently occurs due to intravenous overcorrection of hyponatremia in the hospital setting, although a diet exceptionally high in salt could also eventually result in hypernatremia. In either instance, concurrent renal dysfunction is generally required to overwhelm the body’s ability to regulate sodium.

Symptoms

• CNS dysfunction: The signs and symptoms of hypernatremia are usually associated with central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction. These include weakness, lethargy, confusion, irritability, altered speech, hyperreflexia, myoclonic jerks, spasticity, seizures, and coma.
• Dehydration and hypovolemia: Hypernatremia related to reduced water intake/water loss can present with dry mucous membranes, reduced skin turgor, oliguria, tachycardia, and/or orthostatic hypotension.
• Diabetes insipidus: When either form of diabetes insipidus (DI) is the cause of hypernatremia, classic symptoms and signs of DI are likely to be present including nocturia, polyuria, and polydipsia.

Investigations

Blood

• • Serum osmolality (also urine osmolality if suspected DI)
  • Serum electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺)
  • Urea
  • Creatinine
  • Glucose
  • Lithium levels (if appropriate – hypernatremia reduces excretion and increases toxicity risk)

Urine

• • Urine electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺)
  • Urinary Na
  • Urine osmolality

• Assessment of urine osmolality should focus upon determining whether intravascular volume is hypovolemic or euvolemic. In cases of hypovolemia, the body will attempt to retain water and sodium. Concentrated urine will be produced with urine osmolality usually >600 mOsm/kg and urinary sodium <20mmol/L. Kidney dysfunction or diuretic (eg: osmotic/loop) use can be indicated by urinary sodium >20mmol/L. Euvolemia generally illustrates the body endeavouring to jettison water, such as in DI, with expected urine osmolality <300mOsm/kg and urinary sodium <20mmol/L.

Treatment

• Treatment should always begin by correcting the underlying cause and redressing any fluid deficiency.
• The safest method of fluid correction is oral, however, IV glucose 5% (no added Na⁺) may be necessary. Mild hypernatremia with an intact urge to drink may potentially be corrected via free access to water only.
• Rapid correction of chronic hypernatremia must not be undertaken due to the risk of cerebral oedema.
• Serum sodium concentration should be reduced by:
  • Not more than 0.5 mmol/L per hour
  • Not more than 10 mmol/L per 24 hours

• Serum sodium should be monitored every 4 hours in the first 12-24 hours. The goal should be gradual reduction to a serum sodium concentration of approximately 145 mmol/L.

Additional considerations

• DI with an impaired urge to drink is rare but can precipitate severe hypernatremia that is challenging to manage. The suggested treatment is full dosage of ADH combined with fastidious regulation of water intake to maintain normal serum sodium concentration.

Sources

Desai, R., Marshall, T., & Xiao, Y. (n.d.). Hypernatremia | Osmosis. Osmosis. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://www.osmosis.org/learn/Hypernatremia 

Emergency Care Institute (ECI). (2022, February 8). Sodium – hypernatraemia. Emergency Care Institute (ECI). Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/networks/eci/clinical/clinical-tools/electrolytes/sodium-hypernatraemia 

eTG. (n.d.). Therapeutic guidelines > therapeutic guidelines: Therapeutic guidelines. Therapeutic guidelines > Therapeutic Guidelines | Therapeutic Guidelines. Retrieved November 30, 2022, from https://tgldcdp.tg.org.au/searchAction?appendedinputbuttons=electrolyte+abnormalities

Kinsman, B. J., Simmonds, S. S., Browning, K. N., Wenner, M. M., Farquhar, W. B., & Stocker, S. D. (2020). Integration of hypernatremia and angiotensin II by the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis regulates thirst. The Journal of Neuroscience, 40(10), 2069–2079. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.2208-19.2020 

Muhsin, S. A., & Mount, D. B. (2016). Diagnosis and treatment of hypernatremia. Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 30(2), 189–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2016.02.014 

Qian, Q. (2019). Hypernatremia. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 14(3), 432–434. https://doi.org/10.2215/cjn.12141018 

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Majic Sites

Water-salt regime – useful information from Turin

To drink or not to drink on the route, and if you drink, then when and how much – this is the number one problem in all summer hikes in the hot season. Even more acute in winter hikes is the question of where to get water for drinking.

Under normal conditions, we need only 2-2.5 liters of water per day to maintain metabolism and evaporation through the skin and lungs. Part of the necessary water is formed in the body as a result of oxidative processes, part is contained in food, but this is not enough. Up to 1.5 liters of water should be ingested with drinking and hot dishes.

Water is needed not only for metabolism, but also to stabilize body temperature. During intense work and in hot weather, the body cools down, evaporating part of the moisture. Therefore, depending on the intensity of exercise, physical fitness and climate, a tourist needs from 3 to 10 or more liters of water per day.

Drinking water is not all evaporated through the skin. Part of it is excreted in the urine. Moreover, if you immediately drink a liter of water, only 60% of it will go to ensure thermoregulation, the remaining 40% will be excreted in the urine. But if you drink 100-150 ml every hour, then up to 90% water will turn into sweat. In other words, in the heat and during hard work, it is more beneficial to drink often, but little by little.

Not drinking during the day, as recommended in some publications, is no less harmful than drinking in unlimited quantities, since it can cause dehydration of the body and the accompanying decrease in performance and heat stroke.

It is most convenient to drink at small halts, which are usually made near water sources. In this case, it is better to drink in small sips or through a straw, adding citric acid, various extracts and dry juices, sports drinks, fruit syrups to the mug. The “pops” have proven themselves well. They are easy to prepare from citric acid and soda with various additives. Cold tea quenches thirst well, green tea is better, as well as a solution of concentrated tomato juice or tomato paste. In extreme cases, you can drink water with sweets, sugar, or seizing it with dried fruits.

Do not drink until the feeling of thirst disappears, even at large halts and bivouacs. Water is absorbed into the blood 10-15 minutes after drinking, and only then does thirst disappear. During this time, you can use and enjoy watching football online live coverage. Too much drinking does not quench thirst, but, on the contrary, often provokes its strengthening. The reason is here.

A liter of blood contains 9.45 g of table salt. Salt is excreted from the body together with sweat, but in smaller quantities – about 5 g per liter. Accordingly, with profuse sweating, the salt content in the blood increases. The feeling of thirst is a reaction to the violation of salt balance: the body seeks to reduce the concentration of salt. But if too much is drunk, the concentration of salt in the blood drops so significantly that, in order to restore it, excess moisture is removed with urine and profuse sweat, and additional salt is lost with them. Our salt reserves are limited, and when they are depleted, the salt content in the blood is not replenished.

Therefore, additional removal of moisture and with it salt follows again. Loss of water again causes thirst. The circle closes.

Some effect in the fight against thirst is given by adding salt to the water, but during heavy physical work in the heat, the abuse of salt reduces sweating, disrupting thermoregulation and provoking heat stroke and heart failure.

But what if there are few water sources on the way? In simple hikes in the middle lane in a non-hot period, it is usually enough to drink plenty of water at breakfast and dinner and some water at lunch (snack). On hot days, you will have to carry water in flasks at the rate of 0.7-1 liter per person. Thirst can cause drying of the oral mucosa (false thirst). To get rid of this, you can suck on sour candies and dried fruits.

On winter hikes, there is no place to take water during the movement, but if you drink only twice a day – in the morning and in the evening, dehydration is inevitable. Therefore, a supply of water in thermoses for winter trips is simply necessary.

In the mountains, especially in regions with a hot climate, moisture losses reach 7-10 liters, mainly due to evaporation through the lungs due to an increase in the volume of pulmonary ventilation. At the same time, it is necessary to provide in the diet up to 5 different drinks mentioned earlier.

Hiking Camping Eating

Does salt water boil faster? Myths that you can still believe in

Source:&nbspSergey Sergeev

Often a person interprets coincidences as rules, it happens that a delusion is overgrown with new “evidence” that no one has tested in practice. Some misconceptions about something are completely harmless, others can be harmful. We have compiled for you a selection of common myths and urban legends that, upon closer inspection, turn out to be untrue.

9. Dogs’ vision is monochrome, they see everything in black and white

This myth has existed for a long time, and is still partly believed in. It is only partly true: as a number of studies have shown, dogs do not really see all the same colors as humans, however, their vision is not monochrome either.

This is due to the fact that in the eyes of the caudate there are only two types of cones, which provide color vision – this is only 20% of the number of cones in the human eye. Such vision is called dichromatic, most often in this case there are problems with the perception of red and green colors (therefore, the ability to perceive these colors is checked in the driver’s commissions).

In the case of dogs, their vision, Purina explains, is limited to shades of grey, brown, yellow and blue (red, for example, or orange would look like brown). They also have a hard time picking up subtle changes in hue: light blue and dark blue will look the same to them.

Do you want to please your pet? Give the dog something bright yellow or blue – he will definitely see these colors. And if the donated toy does not cause enthusiasm, maybe the animal simply does not notice that beauty: it simply cannot.

By the way, for the same reason, bulls don’t give a damn about the color of the matador’s capote – they are infuriated by the flickering of the cloak, and their eyesight is also dichromatic.

8. The world needs to produce more food, otherwise global hunger is inevitable

It is often said that the world does not have enough food and it needs to be produced even more – only in this case, hunger at the global level can be avoided.

However, not everyone agrees with this statement. According to Millennium Institute President Professor Hans Herren, there is now enough “capacity” available to feed 14 billion people – that is, about twice as many as live on the planet. According to the UN, the population of the Earth will stabilize at the level of about 10 billion people, so there is even some reserve.

According to the expert, the problem is not that there is not enough food, but that it is often not available – for economic, social and political reasons. Also, this aspect is influenced by various shocks, which lead to restrictions. But in general, food should be enough for everyone.

7. Lightning destroys planes

There is a myth that lightning is categorically dangerous for planes flying through the sky. And not everyone is ready to look for confirmation of this statement. Unbelievable, but true: airplanes fly even in adverse weather, often get into storms and storms, and regularly receive discharges of tens and hundreds of thousands of amperes. The design of the aircraft suggests that the aircraft work like lightning rods: upon striking, lightning comes out from the “opposite” side, rarely causing serious damage (but soot spots remain in the places of impact). As for the statistics, each aircraft is struck by lightning about once or twice a year.

And yes, indeed, a powerful discharge can actually have a negative effect on the electronic and electrical components of the aircraft, down to engine valves, generators and energy storage devices. Therefore, in the event of a strike, pilots assess the potential damage, deciding on the fly whether to continue or go to the nearest airport.

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In the history of commercial air travel, there are only a few cases where a lightning strike and other related circumstances led to fatalities, and there are also a few cases when aircraft were forced to make an emergency landing.

6. The comet’s tail follows it

It is logical to assume that any moving object leaves a trace just behind itself: smoke stretches from the chimney of a diesel train, a plume stretches behind an airplane, meteors flying into the Earth’s atmosphere also leave a trace behind.

Judging by the photographs of space objects, they also have their own tail, which, as you know, is located behind. This is also confirmed by Hollywood cinema: all the most terrible meteorites and comets fly towards the Earth as if they were in the atmosphere. But photos are static, and it is impossible to accurately determine the direction of movement from them, and cinema … In the cinema, there is Harry Stamper, who saved us from Armageddon.

Outer space has its own nuances. For example, there is a wind here, but it has nothing to do with what we are used to. Therefore, the tail (or one of them) of a comet can be directed anywhere, regardless of the direction of the object’s movement. The tail can be one, then it consists of gas and dust. But in some cases, the tail is divided into components, and this is how the “horned star” appears.

In practice, evaporating substances are directed away from the Sun, due to which the surface of the comet warms up, light pressure and other manifestations of the laws of physics, chemistry, etc., obscure to the average person, come into play. The closer the comet is to the luminary, the higher its brightness and severity of the tail , and under certain conditions it can be directed forward. Well, a heavier dust tail can bend a little.

5. A person should drink at least eight glasses of water a day

This rule sounds funny: what does “eight glasses” mean? What volume are they? The standard is 250 ml, which means two liters of water. Understood. But already at this stage, everything goes haywire: different experts talk about different volumes, which vary from 2 to 4 liters. Moreover, there are different “schools”: some say that we are talking about clean water – you only need to drink 2 liters of it, others – about any liquid (which is in soup, tea, fruits and vegetables).

Next is the question of human weight: it is unlikely that a 50-kilogram organism needs as much water as a 120-kilogram one. Therefore, sometimes they offer calculation formulas (for example, 40 ml per kilogram – we emphasize that this is not our recommendation, you need to contact specialized specialists for them).

This advice can be compared to the advice to walk at least 10,000 steps a day. Such a load may be excessive for an unprepared or suffering from some kind of health disorder, or be insignificant for another. Therefore, nutritionists recommend not blindly following the “rules from the Internet”: the amount of fluid consumed should be calculated based on the individual characteristics of the body, gender, physical activity, and so on.

Another rule is more important here: little water is bad, a lot of water is also bad.

4. It will take seven years for the body to dispose of chewing gum that got inside

A beautiful horror story from the past. Like, if you swallow gum, everything will stick together inside (or already at the exit) in a person (more often a child), and you have to wait seven years until it dissolves.

In general, everything is extremely simple with this myth. Yes, chewing gum is really not intended to be swallowed, but once in the digestive tract, it will not cause harm. In addition, the body is unlikely to fully digest it (it will try, but the rubber base will not succumb). And of course, chewing gum will not get stuck anywhere inside: it will be free very soon in a natural way.

But you shouldn’t relax too much: in very rare cases, chewing gum can cause intestinal obstruction in a child. To do this, however, you will need to eat really a lot of chewing gum (simply rubber), and have difficulties with the functioning of the digestive tract system. In short: one accidentally swallowed chewing gum is not worthy of attention.

3. Einstein was a loser in mathematics while studying at school

Another myth that is easily broken. It is difficult to say how he was born: they say that Albert Einstein had poor school performance, and was not friends with mathematics and other exact sciences from the word “completely”. There is an assumption that it all started with the mistake of one of the biographers, who misinterpreted information about Einstein’s early years.

It is interesting that the myth was debunked a long time ago, including by the scientists themselves: in 1935, in the publication of Ripley’s Believe It or Not! a column was published in which the author claimed Einstein’s poor performance. And he did not remain silent, speaking with a refutation. His words were confirmed by a certificate, from which it followed that at that time young Albert was practically a genius – in the exact sciences, for sure (6 points is the maximum mark).

Other publications came out later, each time refuting the delusion. But it’s so convenient: “I’m like Einstein: I’m a bad student, but in fact a genius” . We hasten to disappoint: you really study poorly and you are not a genius.

2. To keep warm, you need to drink alcohol

When you are cold through and through, you can drink a little and thereby warm up – there is such a myth. And it is easily explained by research on this topic. There are enough of them, we will give an example of one of them, the results were published in 2005.

In short, a group of researchers based on the results of experiments came to the conclusion that a person who has consumed alcohol, feels an increase in body temperature. He becomes “hot” due to an increase in the speed of blood flow and increased sweating. But they also lead to a decrease in the body temperature of the subjects, and not an increase at all: then, after taking a dose of 15 percent alcohol, after 20 minutes, the decrease was 0.3 degrees Celsius.

So you can’t “warm up” with alcohol, even if you really believe in it. At the same time, we recall: there is no “safe” or “healthy” dose of alcohol.

1. Salt water boils faster

They say that if you add salt to water, it boils faster, which means that potatoes and corn will cook faster. Those who believe in this folk hack really achieve a positive result (from their point of view).

True, for this it is necessary to ignore the aspect that the boiling point of salt water is higher than that of fresh water. For example, in a liquid whose salinity is more than 15%, the boiling point will be 103 degrees Celsius (15% is a lot, since the salinity of the oceans averages 3.47%).

So adding salt, even in theory, will not make the water boil faster because it needs to absorb more energy than fresh water. Although supporters of the idea believe that salt water is denser, which means that it transfers energy from molecule to molecule more efficiently and, as a result, boils earlier. This is not entirely true.

The theory is broken about the same level of salinity: it is unlikely that a pinch of salt per one and a half to two liters of water will have a noticeable effect on the speed of boiling. “But if you throw salt into boiling water, it starts to boil!” Yes, because the salt crystals help create “air bubbles” in the container. With the same success, you can throw a spoonful of sugar or fine sand into the heated water – it will also “boil”.

You can also raise the issue of changing the specific heat when salt is added (in theory, water should still boil faster). But in the experiment, fresh water in one pan and very salty water in the other boiled at about the same time. The nuance was that salt water was hotter: potatoes, it turns out, will still cook faster in salt water. However, it will be inedible, and the speed gain is negligible.

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