What are the key components of the human eye socket. How do extraocular muscles control eye movement. What is the function of the cornea and retina in vision. Discover the intricate anatomy and physiology of the human eye.

The Extraocular Muscles: Controllers of Eye Movement

The human eye is a marvel of biological engineering, capable of precise movements and adjustments thanks to six extraocular muscles. These muscles originate in the eye socket, also known as the orbit, and work in concert to control the eye’s position and movement.

Superior and Inferior Rectus Muscles

The superior rectus muscle attaches to the top of the eye and is responsible for upward movement. Its counterpart, the inferior rectus, connects to the bottom of the eye and facilitates downward motion. These muscles work in tandem to control vertical eye movements, allowing us to look up and down with ease.

Medial and Lateral Rectus Muscles

Horizontal eye movements are controlled by the medial and lateral rectus muscles. The medial rectus attaches near the nose and moves the eye inward, while the lateral rectus connects near the temple and directs the eye outward. This pair of muscles enables side-to-side eye movement, essential for scanning our environment and tracking moving objects.

Superior and Inferior Oblique Muscles

The superior oblique muscle has a unique path, originating at the back of the orbit and passing through a small pulley (the trochlea) before attaching to the top of the eye. It rotates the eye inward around its long axis and assists in downward movement. The inferior oblique, arising from the front of the orbit near the nose, rotates the eye outward and aids in upward movement. These oblique muscles provide the eye with rotational capabilities, crucial for maintaining a level visual field when the head is tilted.

The Protective and Supportive Structures of the Eye

Beyond the muscles that control eye movement, several structures play vital roles in protecting and supporting the eye’s function.

Conjunctiva: The Eye’s Protective Membrane

The conjunctiva is a transparent mucous membrane that covers the inner surface of the eyelids and the front surface of the eye, excluding the cornea. It serves as a barrier against pathogens and foreign particles. When inflamed or infected, it leads to a condition known as conjunctivitis or “pink eye.”

Lacrimal Gland: The Source of Tears

Located under the outer edge of the eyebrow in the orbit, the lacrimal gland produces tears that lubricate the eye. This lubrication is essential for maintaining eye health, preventing dryness, and washing away debris.

Tenon’s Capsule: The Eye’s Cushion

Tenon’s capsule is a layer of connective tissue that lies between the conjunctiva and the surface of the eye. It acts as a cushion, allowing smooth movement of the eye within the orbit.

The Eye’s Outer Wall: Sclera and Cornea

The outer wall of the eye consists of two distinct structures: the sclera and the cornea.

Sclera: The Eye’s Protective Shield

The sclera is the white, opaque outer layer of the eye, covering nearly the entire surface of the eyeball. Composed of strong collagen fibers, it provides structural integrity and protection for the eye’s internal components. The tendons of the six extraocular muscles attach to the sclera, enabling eye movement.

Cornea: The Window to Vision

The cornea is the clear, front part of the eye’s outer wall. Its unique arrangement of collagen fibers allows light to pass through, making it transparent. The cornea serves two crucial functions: it protects the eye’s internal structures and bends incoming light to focus it on the retina. It’s also where contact lenses are placed when worn.

Internal Anatomy: The Eye’s Inner Workings

The internal structures of the eye work together to process light and create the images we perceive.

Anterior Chamber and Aqueous Humor

The anterior chamber is a fluid-filled space inside the eye, located between the cornea and the iris. It’s filled with aqueous humor, a clear fluid that nourishes the eye’s internal structures and helps maintain intraocular pressure.

Iris and Pupil: Light Regulators

The iris is the colored part of the eye, a disc-shaped structure with a central opening called the pupil. Muscles in the iris control pupil size, constricting in bright light and dilating in dim conditions. This regulation helps optimize the amount of light reaching the back of the eye.

Lens: The Eye’s Focusing Mechanism

Located directly behind the pupil, the lens bends incoming light to focus it on the retina. The lens can change shape, a process known as accommodation, to help the eye focus on objects at varying distances. It’s suspended by small fibers called zonules that attach to its capsule.

The Vitreous and Retina: From Light to Signal

Once light passes through the lens, it travels through the vitreous cavity before reaching the retina.

Vitreous Humor: The Eye’s Gel

The vitreous cavity, which occupies about 80% of the eye’s volume, is filled with a jelly-like substance called vitreous humor. This gel plays a crucial role in maintaining the eye’s shape and nourishing its inner structures.

Retina: The Eye’s Image Sensor

The retina is a thin, transparent structure lining the inner wall of the eye. It functions much like the film in a camera, capturing images projected through the eye’s optical system. The retina is a complex structure with ten layers of specialized cells, including photoreceptors.

Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones

Photoreceptors are specialized cells in the retina that convert light into chemical energy, which can then be transmitted to the brain via nerve cells. There are two types of photoreceptors:

• Rods: These cells are responsible for black and white vision and function well in low light conditions, enabling night vision.
• Cones: These cells are responsible for color vision and function best in bright light conditions.

The Visual Pathway: From Eye to Brain

The process of vision doesn’t end at the retina. The visual information captured by the photoreceptors must be transmitted to the brain for interpretation.

Optic Nerve: The Visual Information Highway

The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain. It exits the back of the eye and travels to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain.

Visual Cortex: Where Vision Becomes Perception

The visual cortex is the part of the brain responsible for processing visual information. It interprets the signals received from the optic nerve, allowing us to perceive and understand what we see.

Common Eye Conditions and Their Anatomical Basis

Understanding the anatomy of the eye helps in comprehending various eye conditions and their treatments.

Myopia and Hyperopia

Myopia (nearsightedness) and hyperopia (farsightedness) are refractive errors caused by the eye’s inability to focus light precisely on the retina. These conditions can be corrected with glasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery that alters the cornea’s shape.

Cataracts

Cataracts occur when the eye’s natural lens becomes cloudy, typically due to age-related changes. This condition can be treated by surgically removing the cloudy lens and replacing it with an artificial intraocular lens.

Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often due to increased intraocular pressure. Treatment may involve medications to lower eye pressure or surgery to improve fluid drainage from the eye.

Advancements in Eye Care and Vision Science

The field of ophthalmology continues to evolve, with new technologies and treatments emerging to address various eye conditions and improve vision.

Laser Eye Surgery

Procedures like LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis) use laser technology to reshape the cornea, correcting refractive errors and reducing or eliminating the need for glasses or contact lenses.

Artificial Retinas

For individuals with certain types of retinal degeneration, artificial retinas are being developed to restore some level of vision. These devices use electronic components to stimulate the remaining healthy cells in the retina.

Gene Therapy

Researchers are exploring gene therapy as a potential treatment for inherited eye diseases. This approach aims to correct or replace faulty genes responsible for various eye conditions.

The human eye is a complex and fascinating organ, with each component playing a crucial role in the process of vision. From the extraocular muscles that control eye movement to the intricate structures of the retina that capture light, every part of the eye works in harmony to provide us with the gift of sight. As our understanding of eye anatomy and physiology continues to grow, so too does our ability to diagnose, treat, and prevent eye conditions, ensuring better vision and eye health for people around the world.

Anatomy of the Eye – American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus

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EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES:

There are six muscles that attach to the eye to move it. These muscles originate in the eye socket (orbit) and work to move the eye up, down, side to side, and rotate the eye.

The superior rectus is an extraocular muscle that attaches to the top of the eye. It moves the eye upward. The inferior rectus is an extraocular muscle that attaches to the bottom of the eye. It moves the eye downward. The medial rectus is an extraocular muscle that attaches to the side of the eye near the nose. It moves the eye inward toward the nose. The lateral rectus is an extraocular muscle that attaches to the side of the eye near the temple. It moves the eye outward.

The superior oblique is an extraocular muscle that comes from the back of the orbit. It travels through a small pulley (the trochlea) in the orbit near the nose and then attaches to the top of the eye. The superior oblique rotates the eye inward around the long axis of the eye (front to back). The superior oblique also moves the eye downward.

The inferior oblique is an extraocular muscle that arises in the front of the orbit near the nose. It then travels outward and backward in the orbit before attaching to the bottom part of the eyeball. It rotates the eye outward along the long axis of the eye (front to back). The inferior oblique also moves the eye upward.

Fig. 1: Extraocular Muscle Anatomy

CONJUNCTIVA:

The conjunctiva is a transparent mucous membrane that covers the inner surface of the eyelids and the surface of the eye. When it is inflamed or infected it becomes red or pink. This is called conjunctivitis or “pink eye”.

LACRIMAL GLAND:

The lacrimal gland produces tears that lubricate the eye. It is located under the outer edge of the eyebrow in the orbit.

TENON’S CAPSULE:

Tenon’s capsule is a layer of tissue that lies between the conjunctiva and the surface of the eye.

SCLERA:

The sclera is the white outer wall of the eye. It covers nearly the entire surface of the eyeball. It is a strong layer made of collagen fibers. The tendons of the six extraocular muscles attach to the sclera.

Fig. 2: The cornea is the front clear part of the eye in the center part of the outer wall of the eye.

CORNEA:

The cornea is the front clear part of the eye in the front center part of the outer wall of the eye. It is made of collagen fibers in a very special arrangement so that the cornea is clear. Through the cornea you can see the iris and pupil. The cornea bends light coming into the eye so that it is focused on the retina. The cornea is the part of the eye on which contact lenses are placed.

Internal (Intraocular)Anatomy

ANTERIOR CHAMBER:

The anterior chamber is a fluid (aqueous humor) filled space inside the eye. The cornea lies in front of the anterior chamber, and the iris and the pupil are behind it.

IRIS/PUPIL:

The iris is the colored part of the eye. It is disc shaped with a hole in the middle (the pupil). Muscles in the iris cause the pupil to constrict in bright light and to dilate in dim light. The change in pupil size regulates the amount of light that reaches the posterior (back) part of the eye.

LENS:

The lens of the eye is located directly behind the pupil. The lens bends light coming into the eye to help focus it on the retina. It changes shape to help the eye focus to see objects clearly at near. The lens is suspended from the wall of the eye by many small fibers (zonules) that attach to its capsule.

CILIARY BODY:

The ciliary body is attached to the outer edge of the iris near the wall of the eye. The ciliary body produces the fluid (aqueous humor) that fills the eye and nourishes its structures. It also helps to change the shape of the lens when focusing occurs.

VITREOUS:

The vitreous cavity lies between the lens and the retina and fills 4/5 of the space inside the back part of the eye. A jelly like substance known as the vitreous humor fills the cavity. This plays an important role in nourishing the inner structures of the eye. Light comes into the eye through the pupil and passes through the vitreous to be projected on the retina.

RETINA:

The retina is a thin, transparent structure that covers the inner wall of the eye. The eye works like a camera, and the retina is like the film in the camera. It is where images are first projected before they are transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain. It is a very complex structure with 10 layers of specialized cells including the photoreceptor cells (rods and cones).

PHOTORECEPTORS:

Photoreceptors are highly specialized cells of the retina that receive light impulses and change them into chemical energy that can be transmitted by nerve cells to the brain. The two types of photoreceptors are rods and cones. Rods perceive black and white and serve night vision primarily. Cones are responsible for color perception and central vision.

MACULA:

The macula is a small, specialized area of the retina that has very high sensitivity and is responsible for central vision.

RETINAL PIGMENT EPITHELIUM (RPE):

The retinal pigment epithelium is a layer of cells deep in the retina. This single layer of cells helps maintain the function of the photoreceptor cells in the retina by processing vitamin A products, turning over used photoreceptor segments, absorbing light, and transporting nutrients in and out of the photoreceptor cells.

CHOROID:

The choroid is a tissue layer that lies between the retina and the sclera. The choroid has a rich supply of blood vessels that nourish the retina.

UVEAL TRACT:

The uveal tract is a pigmented component of the eye that is comprised of 1) the iris, 2) the ciliary body, and 3) the choroid.

OPTIC NERVE:

The optic nerve connects each eye to the brain. It is a structure (like a video cable) that sends the picture seen by the eye to the brain so that the images can be processed. The optic nerves end in a structure called the optic chiasm. In an adult, the optic nerve is about the diameter of a pencil. There are over 1 million individual nerve cells in the optic nerve.

OPTIC CHIASM:

The optic chiasm is the place in the brain where the two optic nerves meet. The individual nerve fibers from each nerve are sorted in the chiasm. The sorting occurs in such a way that the right side of the brain controls the view of objects in left visual space and the left side of the brain controls the view of objects in right visual space [See figure 3].

VISUAL CORTEX:

This is an area of the brain in the posterior occipital lobe to which the neurons in the retina ultimately give visual information. The visual cortex helps to process information regarding the image such as its color, composition, and relation in space to other objects. This information is then sent to other parts of the brain that serve higher visual functions.

Fig. 3: The optic chiasm is the place in the brain where the two optic nerves meet.

Updated 01/2021

#Conditions

Eye Socket – All About Vision

By Wendy Leth-Steensen

Eyes are designed to last from birth through old age, so their delicate contents must be protected. The eye socket (or orbit) is tasked with this responsibility. It keeps the eyeball shielded and in place as the eye adapts to a constantly changing environment over its lifetime.

Several other features of the eye assist with this job of keeping it safe:

• Eyelashes keep the eye moist and shield it from foreign particles.

• Eyelids block debris and bright light.

• Conjunctiva provides the sclera (the white of the eye) with a layer of protection.

• Lacrimal glands create tears to lubricate the eye and wash out irritants.  

But it’s the orbit that provides a solid structure to support and house all these features.

Eye socket anatomy 

The orbit is the part of the skull surrounded by the forehead, temple, cheeks and nose. It’s approximately the size of a golf ball, with a volume of about 30 cubic centimeters (about 2 tablespoons). In addition to the globe (the eyeball), the eye socket contains blood vessels, nerves, muscles and fat.

It’s made up of seven orbital bones: frontal, sphenoid, zygomatic, maxillary, lacrimal, ethmoid and palatine. Together, they form a cone-like shape that opens outward. At the tip of the cone (at the back of the eye socket) is the opening to the optic canal, and at the base of the cone (the front of the eye) are the sclera and cornea. 

Eye socket bones are arranged into a roof, floor and walls that range in structure from thick (at the back and front) to thin (floor and walls). Several openings in the orbital bones allow for nerves, veins, arteries and ganglion to pass through.

Pain in the eye socket

Outward signs of conditions that might cause pain in eye sockets can be obvious — bruising, swelling, a bulging (exophthalmos) or sunken (enophthalmos) appearance of the eye or red-colored sclera. Symptoms are often present as blurriness, numbness, restricted eye movement, light sensitivity (photophobia) or nausea.

Eye socket pain can come from:

• Surface of the eye (ocular pain) – You may experience redness, wateriness, burning, itchiness or irritation. Any number of things can cause ocular pain, from dry eyes, eye strain and pink eye (conjunctivitis) to a corneal scratch, chemical exposure, inflammation of the iris (iritis) and more.

• Below the surface of the eye (orbital pain) ­– You could have double vision (diplopia) or feelings of stabbing, throbbing or elevated eye pressure. Possible causes of orbital pain include migraines, toothaches, sinusitis, vitreous hemorrhages and paralysis of eye muscles (ophthalmoplegia), among other things.

Pain in one or both eye sockets is most commonly caused by injury or trauma, specifically from the fracturing of the orbit. Motor vehicle crashes, accidental falls or a hard blow to the face from a baseball can all cause trauma to the eye. Accidents account for 85% of cases of traumatic eye injuries.

If you’re experiencing intense or prolonged pain or discomfort in or around your eye socket, contact an eye doctor right away. Any damage to the soft tissue contained in the orbit must be monitored or treated.

SEE RELATED: Cavernous sinus thrombosis

Broken or fractured eye socket

Broken and fractured mean the same thing when it comes to bones — both words refer to a break that results from excessive pressure on a bone. The severity of a break ranges from a complete break to a partial fracture. Any of the bones in the eye socket can be broken.

A broken eye socket (also called orbital fracture) can happen when the bones around the eyeball are severed, shattered, cracked or stressed. Types of eye socket fractures include:

• Orbital rim fracture – This fracture occurs to the rim bones of the eye socket, most likely displacing these bones. Because this kind of injury requires a lot of force, it can not only affect the contents of the orbit but also extend to other parts of the face and head, such as the cheekbone, upper jaw and forehead. According to the National Institutes of Health, zygomatic (cheekbone) fractures account for 25% of all facial fractures.

• Orbital floor fracture – This fracture happens to the floor bone of the eye socket. With a direct fracture, both the rim and the floor bones break. With an indirect fracture (or blowout fracture), the floor bone fractures but the rim bones stay intact. In this case, the fractured floor bone can trap eye muscles or other contents of the orbit, keeping the eye from moving normally.

• Trapdoor fracture – This fracture refers to a rare instance in which a floor bone pivots open, traps soft tissues and then pivots back, cutting off blood supply to the tissue. Children are most at risk for this type of injury since their bones are more elastic and not fully developed.

Any time an eye socket is broken or fractured, eye movement can be affected because the eyeball may be out of position, causing pressure and swelling. You should seek immediate medical attention, as this can escalate into a serious situation that may require surgery.

Empty eye socket

An eye may be removed from an eye socket for several reasons, such as from trauma, injury, tumors or diseases like glaucoma or diabetes. Children can have a rare birth defect in which eyeballs are absent (anophthalmia).

Surgery to remove part or all of the eye from the eye socket includes:

• Enucleation – In this procedure, all extraocular muscles (muscles that control eye movement) are detached, the optic nerve is cut and the eyeball removed. If a prosthetic eye is being inserted, the extraocular muscles are attached to it and the soft tissues are placed over the top.

• Evisceration – This involves removing the intraocular structures (iris, retina, vitreous, etc.) but keeping the extraocular muscles, sclera and optic nerve. An implant is inserted, extraocular muscles attached to it and soft tissues are placed over the top.

• Exenteration – This surgery removes everything in the eye socket, leaving it completely empty.  An artificial eye (prosthesis) may be recommended.

Seeing your eye doctor

Keeping up with the health of your eyes is important for long-lasting vision. If you’re experiencing any signs or symptoms of eye socket pain or notice any dramatic changes in your vision, make an appointment with an eye doctor for a comprehensive eye exam. If necessary, your eye doctor can recommend several non-invasive tests, such as a slit lamp exam, air puff test, X-ray or computed tomography (CT) scan, to help determine the cause.
SEE RELATED: Abducens nerve

Eye socket fracture (fracture of the orbit). Harvard Health Publishing. June 2020.

Zygomatic arch fracture. StatPearls. June 2020.

Broken bone. MedlinePlus, National Library of Medicine. May 2021.

Page published on Thursday, May 27, 2021

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Blood supply to the eyes

The normal functioning of the eye requires a constant and sufficient blood supply. With the bloodstream, nutrients and oxygen are brought here, which are necessary for the work of cells, especially for the nervous tissue, which makes up the retina of the eye.

Any disturbances in the blood circulation of the eyeballs immediately lead to disruption of their functioning, therefore the eyes are supplied with a rich, branched network of blood vessels that ensure the operation and nutrition of all its tissues.

Blood supply to the eyeball is carried out by the main line of the internal carotid artery, which is the ophthalmic artery that feeds the eye and its auxiliary apparatus. Tissue nutrition is directly provided by a network of capillary vessels. In this case, the greatest importance is given to the vessels that feed the retina of the eye together with the optic nerve: the central retinal artery and the posterior short ciliary arteries. Violation of blood flow in them can lead to a decrease in vision, up to absolute blindness.

The venous network of the eye completely repeats the structure of the arteries. The peculiarity of the eye veins is the absence of valves in them, which limit the reverse flow of blood and the connections of the venous network of the face, the veins of the orbit, and further, the brain. Accordingly, purulent inflammatory processes that have arisen on the face can spread through the venous blood flow in the direction of the brain, which is potentially life-threatening.

Arterial system of the eye. Structure

The main role in the blood supply to the eye is assigned to one of the main highways of the internal carotid artery, which is the ophthalmic artery. It enters the orbit with the optic nerve through its canal.

Several main branches go inside the orbit: the lacrimal artery, the central retinal artery, the posterior short and long ciliary arteries, the supraorbital artery, the muscular arteries, the posterior and anterior ethmoid arteries, the supratrochlear artery, the internal arteries of the eyelids, the artery of the back of the nose.

The task of the central retinal artery is to participate in the nutrition of the optic nerve, through a small branch, which it gives to the central artery of the optic nerve. Passing inside the optic nerve, the artery pierces its disc and enters the fundus. Here it divides into branches and forms a dense network of vessels that feed the four inner layers of the retina, as well as the intraocular part of the optic nerve itself.

Sometimes an additional blood vessel can be identified in the fundus, which feeds the macular area. This is the cilioretinal artery, a branch of the posterior short ciliary artery. In the event of a violation of the blood flow of the central retinal artery, this branch is able to continue to feed the macular zone, without reducing central vision.

The posterior short ciliary arteries also have branches from the ophthalmic artery. Their number ranges from 6 to 12, they all lie in the sclera surrounding the optic nerve, forming an arterial circle, which is involved in the blood supply to a part of the optic nerve after it leaves the eye. In addition, they provide blood flow in the choroid of the eye. As for the posterior short ciliary arteries, they have no connection with the ciliary body and the iris, due to which the processes of inflammation in the anterior or posterior segment of the eye proceed relatively isolated.

Two branches depart from the ophthalmic artery, these are the posterior long ciliary arteries. They pass through the sclera on the side of the optic nerve, bypass the perivascular space and reach the ciliary body. At this point, they merge into the anterior ciliary arteries – branches of the muscular arteries, with partial attachment of the posterior short ciliary arteries to form a large arterial circle of the iris membrane. The circle is localized at the root of the iris and directs its branches to the pupil. The pupillary and ciliary rims of the iris at the junction form a small arterial circle. These two arterial circles (large and small) carry out the blood supply to the ciliary body and the iris.

The muscular arteries supply blood to all the muscles of the eye, however, the arteries of all the rectus muscles have branches, the so-called anterior ciliary arteries. They, in turn, dividing, form a network of vessels in the limbus, where they join the posterior long ciliary arteries.

From the inside of the skin, their internal arteries approach the eyelids, which would then spread already along the surface of the eyelids. Here they join the external arteries of the eyelids, forming branches of the lacrimal arteries. The result of the fusion is the lower and upper arterial arches of the eyelids, which provide their blood supply.

From the arteries to the posterior surface of the eyelids, several branches for the blood supply of the conjunctiva extend – these are the posterior conjunctival arteries. At the arches of the conjunctiva, the anterior conjunctival arteries join them through the branches of the anterior ciliary arteries, which are involved in the nutrition of the conjunctiva of the eye.

The lacrimal artery is occupied by the blood supply to the adjacent lacrimal gland, as well as the external and superior rectus muscles, in addition, it takes part in the nutrition of the eyelids. The supraorbital artery exits through the supraorbital notch in the frontal bone, carrying blood to the region of the upper eyelid together with the supratrochlear artery.

The ethmoid arteries (anterior and posterior) are involved in the process of nourishing the nasal mucosa, as well as the ethmoid labyrinth.

Other vessels also create blood supply to the eye: the infraorbital artery, which is a branch of the maxillary artery (takes part in the supply of the lower eyelid, as well as the rectus and oblique lower muscles, the lacrimal gland and the lacrimal sac), in addition, there is a facial artery that gives off the angular artery , which nourishes the inner region of the eyelids.

Venous system of the eye. Structure

The system of veins is occupied by the outflow of blood from the tissues of the eye. The central retinal vein provides outflow of blood from the structures supplied by the corresponding artery, then it flows into the cavernous sinus or into the superior ophthalmic vein.

Vorticose veins drain blood away from the choroid of the organ of vision. Four vorticose veins are occupied in the corresponding segment of the eye, the two upper veins are further connected to the upper ophthalmic vein, and the two lower ones to the lower one.

Then the venous outflow from the auxiliary organs of the orbit and the eye, in essence, repeats the arterial blood supply, however, everything happens in the reverse order. The main part of the veins departs to the superior ophthalmic vein, which leaves the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, a much smaller part departs to the inferior ophthalmic vein, which often has two branches. One branch joins the superior ophthalmic vein, and the second leaves through the inferior orbital fissure.

The absence of valves in the veins and the free connection between the vein systems of the face, eye, and brain is a feature of the venous system of the eye. At the same time, venous outflow is possible both in the direction of the face and in the direction of the brain, which creates potentially life-threatening situations in cases of purulent inflammatory processes.

Method for diagnosing pathologies of the eye vessels

• Ophthalmoscopy – inspection and assessment of the condition of the vessels in the fundus.
• Fluorescein angiography – examination of the choroid of the vessels of the retina of the eye, using a contrast agent.
• Ultrasound dopplerography – the study of blood volume in the vessels.
• Rheography – assessment of outflow and inflow of blood per unit of time.

Symptoms of eye vascular diseases

• Violation of the blood flow of the central retinal artery or its branches.
• Formation of blood clots in the central retinal vein and its branches.
• Posterior ischemic neuropathy.
• Anterior ischemic neuropathy.
• Papillopathy.