How does ADHD affect working memory. What are the different types of ADHD. Can ADHD be mistaken for other conditions. Does sugar or TV cause ADHD. What treatment options are available for ADHD.

Understanding the Types of ADHD

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that manifests in various ways. Contrary to popular belief, ADHD is not a one-size-fits-all diagnosis. The American Psychiatric Association has identified three distinct types of ADHD, each characterized by specific symptoms:

• Inattentive Type
• Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
• Combined Type

The inattentive type is marked by difficulty focusing, easy distractibility, and challenges with organization. The hyperactive-impulsive type involves fidgeting, excessive movement, and impulsive behaviors. The combined type, as the name suggests, exhibits symptoms from both categories.

Why is understanding these types crucial? Recognizing the specific type of ADHD an individual has can lead to more targeted and effective treatment strategies. For instance, a child with predominantly inattentive ADHD might benefit from different interventions compared to one with hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Gender Differences in ADHD Presentation

Interestingly, ADHD can manifest differently across genders. While boys are more commonly diagnosed with the hyperactive-impulsive type, girls often exhibit symptoms of the inattentive type. This disparity has led to underdiagnosis in girls, as their symptoms may be less disruptive and therefore less noticeable in classroom settings.

The Link Between ADHD and Working Memory

One of the most intriguing aspects of ADHD is its impact on memory, particularly working memory. Working memory refers to the brain’s ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information for immediate use. It’s like a mental sticky note that helps us complete tasks and follow instructions.

Research has consistently shown that individuals with ADHD often struggle with working memory deficits. A 2012 review published in Clinical Psychology Review found that children with ADHD demonstrated significant working memory problems compared to their peers without ADHD.

How does this impact daily life? Someone with ADHD might find it challenging to:

• Remember and follow multi-step instructions
• Keep track of items on a to-do list
• Recall information they’ve just read or heard
• Organize thoughts and ideas coherently

It’s important to note that while working memory may be impaired, long-term memory typically remains intact in individuals with ADHD. This means they can often recall events from the past or learned information without difficulty, but struggle with manipulating and applying information in real-time situations.

Debunking ADHD Myths: Sugar, TV, and Causes

Over the years, numerous myths have circulated about the causes of ADHD. Two of the most persistent are the supposed links between ADHD and sugar consumption, and ADHD and excessive television viewing. However, scientific research has consistently debunked these claims.

Does sugar cause ADHD? No, there is no credible scientific evidence supporting the idea that sugar intake causes ADHD. While some children may experience temporary hyperactivity after consuming large amounts of sugar, this does not lead to the development of ADHD.

Can watching too much TV cause ADHD? Again, research does not support this claim. While excessive screen time may exacerbate existing ADHD symptoms, it does not cause the disorder.

So, what does cause ADHD? The exact causes are not fully understood, but research points to a combination of factors:

• Genetics: ADHD tends to run in families, suggesting a strong genetic component.
• Brain structure and function: Differences in certain brain areas and neural pathways have been observed in individuals with ADHD.
• Environmental factors: Exposure to certain toxins or complications during pregnancy or early childhood may play a role.

Understanding the true causes of ADHD is crucial for developing effective treatments and dispelling harmful misconceptions that may lead to stigma or ineffective interventions.

ADHD and Cognitive Function: Beyond Memory

While memory issues are a significant aspect of ADHD, the disorder’s impact on cognitive function extends beyond just memory. ADHD can affect various aspects of thinking and processing information.

How does ADHD impact overall cognitive function? Individuals with ADHD may experience challenges in several areas:

• Executive function: This includes skills like planning, organizing, and completing tasks.
• Attention regulation: Difficulty focusing on important stimuli while filtering out distractions.
• Cognitive flexibility: Challenges in shifting attention between tasks or adapting to new situations.
• Processing speed: Some individuals with ADHD may process information more slowly than their peers.

It’s crucial to note that these cognitive challenges do not equate to lower intelligence. In fact, many individuals with ADHD have average or above-average IQs. The cognitive difficulties associated with ADHD are more about how information is processed and applied rather than overall intellectual capacity.

ADHD and Academic Performance

Given the cognitive challenges associated with ADHD, it’s not surprising that many individuals with the disorder struggle in traditional academic settings. However, this is not due to a lack of intelligence or ability. Rather, it often stems from difficulty with:

• Sustaining attention during lectures or while studying
• Organizing materials and managing time effectively
• Completing assignments that require sustained mental effort
• Sitting still for long periods

With proper support and accommodations, many students with ADHD can excel academically. This might include strategies like breaking tasks into smaller chunks, providing frequent breaks, or using assistive technologies to aid organization and focus.

ADHD Misdiagnosis: When Symptoms Overlap

One of the challenges in diagnosing ADHD is that its symptoms can overlap with those of other conditions. This can sometimes lead to misdiagnosis or delayed diagnosis, potentially impacting treatment effectiveness.

Which conditions are commonly confused with ADHD? Several mental health and neurological conditions share symptoms with ADHD, including:

• Anxiety disorders
• Depression
• Bipolar disorder
• Learning disabilities
• Autism spectrum disorders
• Sleep disorders

For example, a child with anxiety might appear restless or have difficulty concentrating, symptoms that could be mistaken for ADHD. Similarly, the mood swings associated with bipolar disorder might be confused with the emotional dysregulation often seen in ADHD.

Why is accurate diagnosis crucial? Proper diagnosis ensures that individuals receive the most appropriate treatment. Misdiagnosis can lead to ineffective interventions or, in some cases, treatments that may exacerbate the actual underlying condition.

The Role of Comprehensive Assessment

To minimize the risk of misdiagnosis, mental health professionals typically conduct comprehensive assessments when evaluating for ADHD. This may include:

• Detailed medical and developmental history
• Behavioral observations in multiple settings (e.g., home and school)
• Standardized rating scales and questionnaires
• Cognitive and academic testing
• Screening for co-occurring conditions

This multi-faceted approach helps to differentiate ADHD from other conditions and identify any co-existing disorders, leading to more accurate diagnosis and more effective treatment planning.

Innovative Treatment Approaches for ADHD

While medication has long been a cornerstone of ADHD treatment, a growing body of research supports a multimodal approach that combines pharmacological interventions with behavioral therapies and lifestyle modifications.

What are some effective non-medication treatments for ADHD? Several evidence-based interventions have shown promise:

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Helps individuals develop coping strategies and change negative thought patterns.
• Neurofeedback: A technique that aims to train the brain to improve focus and reduce impulsivity.
• Mindfulness meditation: Can help improve attention and emotional regulation.
• Exercise: Regular physical activity has been shown to improve ADHD symptoms, particularly in children.
• Dietary interventions: While not a cure, some individuals may benefit from dietary changes, such as increasing omega-3 fatty acid intake.

These approaches can be used alongside medication or, in some cases, as alternatives for individuals who cannot tolerate or prefer not to use pharmacological treatments.

Personalized Treatment Plans

Given the heterogeneous nature of ADHD, treatment plans should be tailored to each individual’s specific needs and symptoms. Factors to consider include:

• The type and severity of ADHD symptoms
• Age and developmental stage
• Presence of co-occurring conditions
• Individual preferences and lifestyle factors

Regular monitoring and adjustment of treatment plans are crucial, as the effectiveness of interventions may change over time or as an individual’s circumstances evolve.

ADHD Across the Lifespan: From Childhood to Adulthood

While ADHD is often associated with childhood, it’s increasingly recognized as a lifelong condition that can persist into adulthood. However, the manifestation of symptoms often changes with age.

How does ADHD present differently in adults compared to children? Some key differences include:

• Hyperactivity often decreases in adulthood, but may be replaced by inner restlessness
• Impulsivity may manifest as risky behaviors or difficulty with long-term planning
• Inattention symptoms may become more prominent, impacting work performance and relationships
• Adults may develop compensatory strategies to manage symptoms, but these can break down under stress

Understanding these age-related changes is crucial for accurate diagnosis and effective treatment throughout the lifespan. Many adults with ADHD were not diagnosed in childhood, leading to years of struggles without appropriate support.

ADHD and Comorbid Conditions

Individuals with ADHD often have co-occurring mental health conditions. Common comorbidities include:

• Anxiety disorders
• Mood disorders (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder)
• Learning disabilities
• Substance use disorders

These comorbid conditions can complicate diagnosis and treatment, highlighting the need for comprehensive assessment and individualized treatment planning.

The Future of ADHD Research and Treatment

As our understanding of ADHD continues to evolve, exciting new avenues for research and treatment are emerging. Some promising areas of investigation include:

• Genetics: Identifying specific genes associated with ADHD risk could lead to more targeted treatments.
• Neuroimaging: Advanced brain imaging techniques are providing new insights into the neural underpinnings of ADHD.
• Digital therapeutics: Mobile apps and video games designed to improve cognitive skills show promise as adjunctive treatments.
• Personalized medicine: Using genetic and neurobiological markers to predict individual response to different treatments.

These advancements hold the potential to revolutionize ADHD diagnosis and treatment, offering hope for more effective, personalized interventions in the future.

The Importance of Destigmatization

Despite increased awareness, ADHD remains a misunderstood and often stigmatized condition. Efforts to educate the public and combat misconceptions are crucial. This includes:

• Promoting accurate information about ADHD causes and treatments
• Highlighting the strengths and unique perspectives of individuals with ADHD
• Advocating for supportive policies in educational and workplace settings
• Encouraging open dialogue about mental health and neurodevelopmental differences

By fostering a more inclusive and understanding society, we can ensure that individuals with ADHD receive the support and opportunities they need to thrive.

Surprising Facts About ADHD – Tooth Grinding, Poor Memory

2. ADHD Is Not a One-Size-Fits-All Diagnosis

There is more than one type of ADHD. In fact, there are three types, and diagnosis depends on the visible ADHD symptoms:

• Inattentiveness: Includes not listening when spoken to, being easily distracted, having trouble paying attention and organizing activities, and avoiding activities that require focus and concentration.
• Hyperactivity: Includes fidgeting, excessive and inappropriate running or climbing when it’s not appropriate, trouble with quiet play or activities.
• Impulsivity: Includes having trouble waiting, saying inappropriate things without thinking, or interrupting.

Only some kids with ADHD are hyperactive. Others, particularly girls, may be calm, but have a form of ADHD that makes it harder for them to focus or pay attention. The American Psychiatric Association established guidelines based on these three types to help doctors more accurately diagnose and treat ADHD.

3. ADHD Is Often Mistaken for Other Conditions

A number of other health problems, such as anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, have symptoms that are similar to those of ADHD. Other mental disorders, such as mood disorder, personality disorder, or OCD, may also be misdiagnosed as ADHD.

In some cases, children’s circumstances may cause them to behave in ways that can be misinterpreted as ADHD. As a result, doctors must determine whether or not a sudden change or stressor in children’s lives — such as the death of a family member or divorce — is affecting their behavior.

4. ADHD Is Associated With Short-Term Memory Problems

Although they do not have problems with long-term memories, people with ADHD may have impaired short-term — or working — memory, research shows. As a result, they may have difficulty remembering assignments or completing tasks that require focus or concentration.

A 2012 review published in Clinical Psychology Review found that children with ADHD have statistically significant, large magnitude working memory problems compared to similar children who did not have ADHD.

5. Sugar and TV Do Not Cause ADHD

Although sugar intake, watching too much TV, and a chaotic family life can worsen symptoms of ADHD, research does not show they actually cause the condition. ADHD does, however, appear to run in families. Research involving families, twins, and children who were adopted suggest there is a strong genetic influence in ADHD risk.

There is no quick fix for ADHD. Although medication can help treat people’s symptoms, it’s only part of an overall ADHD treatment strategy. Behavior therapy, including help staying organized and making positive choices, also plays a role in managing the condition. Treatment strategies for ADHD must be monitored and adjusted over time, just like medications.

Can ADHD Impact Your Memory?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can affect people differently. Some people only experience attention problems, while others go through symptoms of hyperactivity. Many people experience a combination of both. However, there are some other lesser-known symptoms that may be common. For instance, ADHD is linked to anxiety that causes teeth grinding, even at night. However, one of the more common issues that people with ADHD often have to deal with is memory issues.

There’s usually nothing wrong with long term or short term memory. Children with ADHD can often remember words, numbers, instructions that they are able to pay attention to just as much as their peers. The problem often comes when they have to use and manipulate these memories by applying the information to tasks. This may be related to something called working memory.

ADHD And Intelligence

Children and adults with ADHD typically don’t have I.Q. problems. Though they have some cognitive symptoms, they usually have average or above-average intelligence. They often enjoy learning at their own pace and resent school because it compels them to complete tasks they struggle to find motivation for. For that reason, ADHD often causes smart children to struggle with bad grades. Though they often don’t have intelligence issues, they do have issues with cognition. Staying focused, maintaining motivation through tasks, and resisting impulses can all be a challenge. An important part of cognitive functioning is working memory.

What Is Working Memory?

Working memory is the short term memory that helps you to complete tasks. It’s like a short term storage space that holds facts, thoughts, and ideas that you need to recall immediately. Working memory often helps you complete what is often referred to as an “internal plan.” For instance, if you’re writing a paper and you have some sources open in different tabs, your working memory will help you remember what information is in each tab, the information you just read a moment ago, and how you decided you want to word the paragraph you’re currently working on. Most people experience a working memory lapse whenever they enter a room and forget what they came for.

Children and adults with ADHD often experience more working memory issues than the average person, which can impair their ability to complete tasks, especially in work or school.

Can Working Memory Be Improved?

Working memory is malleable, and anyone can improve theirs, even people with ADHD. There are exercises that can help develop and improve working memory. Matching games are common exercises that heavily rely on working memory. Simple card games like Uno and Go Fish can also help children develop working memory. Reading, especially active reading while taking notes, can help improve working memory. For adults that are looking for more sophisticated challenges, there are apps like Lumosity that are said to challenge cognitive functions like working memory.

ADHD is more than just an issue of working memory. It can also affect your ability to stay motivated and focused. Untreated ADHD can get worse and lead to social isolation, suffering school, or work performance.

How ADHD Contributes to Memory Problems: THINK Neurology for Kids: Pediatric Neurology

The neurological differences in people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) make it hard for them to pay attention. Children don’t seem to listen, they miss instructions, and they can’t get organized. And that’s just the start of the daily problems they face as they struggle to focus.

But there’s another issue that underlies inattention: children (and adults) with ADHD have memory problems or, more specifically, trouble with working memory. When we talk with parents at THINK Neurology for Kids, they’re aware of inattention issues with their children, but few have heard about the association between ADHD and working memory.

Studies show that children with ADHD have a significant deficit in working memory compared to their typically developing peers. Learning about what it means to have poor working memory is the key to understanding many of your child’s challenges.

Let’s talk about working memory

Your brain relies on several types of memory and each one has a specific purpose. Working memory has the job of temporarily storing and manipulating several pieces of information so it can be used to guide decisions and actions.  

The information that enters your working memory doesn’t stay there long, typically only for seconds. But the more you focus, the longer it stays.

Even when you have an exceptional working memory, its capacity is limited. Some experts believe the number of meaningful items you can hold in working memory at one time is around seven. Others believe that young adults can only hold three to five. 

Working memory has three components:

Central executive

This part of working memory focuses attention, controls the flow of information into the other two areas, and coordinates their activities. It also links working memory to long-term memory.

Phonological loop

The phonological area takes in the information you hear.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Visual information is stored here. The sketchpad and the phonological loop work separately, so you can increase your memory by engaging both. For example, you may remember a phone number better if you write it down and say it out loud.

Role of working memory in daily life

Your child needs a good working memory to hold multiple pieces of information in their head, organize, and then use the information to direct their activity or answer a question.

Here’s an example. Your child’s math teacher verbally asks them to add 10 plus 20 and then subtract five. It takes a healthy working memory to visualize the numbers and remember the sum of 10 and 20 so they can subtract five.

The challenge of a poor working memory is greater as the instructions get more complex. You may ask your child to turn off the TV, wash their hands, and set the table for dinner. Then they may wash their hands but return to watching their program instead of setting the table. They’re not being defiant; their brain just didn’t hold on to or process the instructions. 

Working memory is the tool that lets your child:

• Pay attention
• Follow instructions
• Plan actions
• Organize activities
• Reach a goal
• Schedule their time
• Stay on track
• See how things fit together

For children with ADHD, an underdeveloped working memory influences many of the most difficult aspects of their daily life, from struggling to track assignments and misplacing materials to failing to finish chores.

Challenges of a poor working memory

When working memory isn’t actually working, your child may have a hard time learning the alphabet. They can’t focus on short instructions like “go brush your teeth,” so forget about stringing together a series of requests. In teens, poor working memory may affect their ability to perform complex tasks like driving a car or socializing.

Unfortunately, when working memory fails, children seem unmotivated or oppositional. It takes a lot of mental effort and energy to make up for a faulty working memory, and then they often fail to perform despite their hard work. It’s no surprise that their frustration comes out in emotional outbursts and behavioral problems.

Working memory can improve

The good news is that we can help children with ADHD improve their working memory. As training puts them through exercises requiring them to retain information longer, the capacity of their working memory expands. 

If you have questions about ADHD, inattention, and working memory, or you’d like to schedule a consultation, call THINK Neurology for Kids or book an appointment online at our offices in The Woodlands, Katy, and Cypress, Texas.

Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying working memory encoding and retrieval in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

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Frontiers | A Review of Working Memory Training in the Management of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Introduction

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders among children (Benyakorn et al., 2016). It is a chronic disorder with a complex and heterogeneous clinical presentation (Kofler et al., 2019), including age-inappropriate and impairing levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (Franke et al., 2018).

The worldwide prevalence of ADHD among children and adolescents is 7. 2% (Wolraich et al., 2019) and among adults is between 2% and 5% (Polyzoi et al., 2018). Different etiological factors and numerous prenatal risk factors are associated with ADHD, including maternal substance use, stress during pregnancy, prematurity, low birth weight, and several complications of pregnancy, labour, delivery, and infancy (Sciberras et al., 2017).

ADHD affects children of both sexes, but males are diagnosed with ADHD more frequently than females, with a male to female ratio of 2–4:1 (Wolraich et al., 2019). These differences may be attributable to hyperactive behaviour being more apparent in males (Wolraich et al., 2019). Conversely, females are more prone to receive a diagnosis of the inattentive subtype of ADHD (Magnus et al., 2021). Although the disorder is classically thought of as a developmental disorder, most children diagnosed with ADHD will continue to experience symptoms during adolescence and into adulthood (Gallo and Posner, 2016). Persistent ADHD is associated with multiple negative consequences including academic underachievement, substance abuse, risky sexual behaviour, car accidents and injuries, unstable peer relationships (Bélanger et al. , 2018), decreased community functioning, unemployment, and reduced income (Holbrook et al., 2016; Danielson et al., 2018).

Additionally, ADHD may present with other comorbid disorders including anxiety (Lopez et al., 2018), depression (Lopez et al., 2018), autism spectrum disorders (ASD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (Franke et al., 2018). Mortality is also high in people with ADHD (Bélanger et al., 2018).

The diagnosis of ADHD remains challenging due to a lack of symptom specificity, a broad list of differential diagnoses, and the presence of comorbidities (Bélanger et al., 2018). For these reasons, a comprehensive and detailed clinical assessment is particularly important (Bélanger et al., 2018).

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), there are three types of ADHD: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, and the combined type (Lopez et al., 2018). A similar definition was recommended by the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). There are differences in the age of onset and the necessary number of symptoms for diagnosis (Lopez et al., 2018). To diagnose a child with ADHD, the child must present with six out of the nine symptoms on the two sets of core domains (inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity) as described in DSM-5. In youths and adults, only five of these symptoms are necessary for diagnosis. The symptoms must be observed for at least 6 months and cause substantial impairment in social, academic, and occupational performance in two or more different settings (e.g., home and school).

The age of onset of ADHD symptoms was raised from 7 years (DSM-4) to 12 years (DSM-5) to allow further flexibility in diagnosing older adolescents and adults (Wolraich et al., 2019). The symptoms of inattention include an inability to maintain focus on details, making imprudent mistakes, an inability to stay focused on duties, appearing to not listen when being spoken to, an inability to adhere to directions or arrange tasks, keeping away from duties that need mental exertion, losing important things, getting preoccupied with external stimuli, and being careless in everyday activities. The symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity include: squirming, feeling as if being continuously driven by an “inward engine,” an inability to stay seated when required, jumping on things, being noisy, exclaiming answers, blabbering, an inability to wait their turn, and a tendency to hinder or interrupt others. Because each of these symptoms has a different underlying neurological substrate, it is possible that different neurobiological mechanisms contribute to the clinical features of ADHD (Table 1).

Table 1. Typical ADHD symptoms and underlying structures.

Medications are essential for the management of patients with ADHD (Sonuga-Barke et al., 2014). Psychostimulants are considered the first-line pharmacological treatment option for ADHD (Lambez et al., 2020), with methylphenidate being the most prescribed psychostimulant. Methylphenidate can enhance cognitive function in patients with ADHD and improve cerebral cortex activity by increasing the availability of catecholamines, which play a critical role in cognitive functioning (Farr et al. , 2014). However, the use of stimulants increases the risk of anorexia, weight loss, and insomnia (Briars and Todd, 2016).

Non-pharmacological interventions have also been investigated for improving cognitive function in ADHD (Sharma et al., 2015). Dietary supplementation with minerals and Omega-3 resulted in modest improvements in ADHD behavioural symptoms and emotional lability (Sharma et al., 2015). Meditation-based practices such as yoga and mindfulness are commonly practised in patients with ADHD (Sharma et al., 2015). Yoga has been found to modulate the activity of the autonomic nervous system and induce parasympathetic activity and thus improve anxiety and mood. It also reduces impulsive behaviour (Sharma et al., 2015). Mindfulness increases the density of grey matter in areas associated with memory, emotion control, and learning (Sharma et al., 2015). However, there are substantial differences between studies in the methods and the targeted ADHD subtypes and deficits, and hence these conclusions remain to be corroborated (Sharma et al. , 2015).

Another promising non-pharmacological approach is neurofeedback (NFB; Ros et al., 2014). It improves self-control by using a brain-computer interface and improves behavioural symptoms of ADHD for up to 1 year after treatment (Van Doren et al., 2019). NFB training also improves visual and auditory short-term memory and auditory working memory (Nesayan et al., 2019).

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) is another non-pharmacological approach that can be implemented on an individual or group basis, or for parental education (Shabanpour et al., 2017). Previous studies have shown that CBT reduces the behavioural symptoms of ADHD (Shabanpour et al., 2017). In addition, there is evidence for other non-invasive, non-pharmacological interventions that can be offered to ADHD patients such as physical exercise, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to improve the behavioural and cognitive domains of ADHD (Lambez et al., 2020). However, there are relatively few studies in this field (Lambez et al., 2020).

The combination of non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions seems promising for achieving improved cognitive function with lower medication doses, thus potentially reducing side effects. These non-pharmacological interventions target cognitive domains considered central to the cognitive deficits in ADHD, most notably working memory. Moreover, these interventions provide benefits beyond what is achievable through medication alone (Holmes et al., 2010; Catalá-López et al., 2017). Thus, training exercises targeting working memory are a promising adjunct treatment option for people with ADHD.

In this review, we provide a review of working memory and working memory training and their role in the management of ADHD. We provide an overview of the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic benefit of working memory training and identify novel directions for research to improve ADHD treatment protocols.

Working Memory

Working memory refers to the active mental workspace that can briefly hold and manipulate information (Fang et al., 2016). Working memory capacity determines the rate and level of learning and predicts performance on mental tasks such as reading comprehension, language acquisition, reasoning, and problem-solving (Fang et al., 2016; Emch et al., 2019).

Working memory is a hierarchical process that connects detailed sensory representations to specific behavioural responses. These are linked via intermediate task-relevant representations and action plans in a network of different brain areas (Christophel et al., 2017).

Working memory plays a fundamental role in cognition, allowing one to hold information “in mind.” Working memory is defined by its flexibility: people are capable of storing, at least temporarily, any information. According to Baddeley’s multi-element model of working memory, considered the predominant hypothetical model (Baddeley, 2007), the working memory system includes three anatomically and functionally discrete elements:

1. The visuospatial sketchpad, that stores visual and spatial material with limited capacity (Emch et al., 2019).

2. The phonological loop, which has two components. The first component, the phonological store, holds visually presented and auditory-verbal information that can be kept active in the second component, the articulatory loop, through subvocal rehearsal (Emch et al., 2019).

3. The central executive, which allocates the attentional resources for the organisation, deeper processing, and storage of different types of information elements and is considered the master element of working memory (Emch et al., 2019).

The episodic buffer integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory (Emch et al., 2019). The buffer is a passive system with limited capacity, believed to be linked to long-term memory and semantic meaning (Baddeley, 2017). Its main function is to link information across different domains to form integrated elements of visual, spatial, and verbal information that are ordered in an episodic and chronological manner.

Working memory includes multiple stages: encoding, maintenance, and retrieval, as well as some process of attention regulation that resists interruption by irrelevant information (Emch et al., 2019).

Encoding is the initial process of perceiving and learning information. Working memory stores information for immediate or long-term use (long-term memory). Encoding can be visual (converting images and visual sensory information to memory), elaborative (relating new information to previously stored knowledge), semantic (processing and encoding sensory input that has a particular meaning), acoustic (encoding auditory inputs), or other (tactile, odours, tastes; Baddeley, 2017).

Maintenance (or storage) of information is the process of placing the acquired information into memory. Memory can be stored in short-term or long-term memory, with the former being a component of working memory. Short-term memory is only used to refer to the storage of information for a short while and working memory refers to the components of memory that uses the information to manipulate this information (Baddeley, 2017).

Retrieval is the mental process of recalling information that was previously stored. There are three main types of recall: free, cued, and serial. Free recall occurs when individuals are asked to recall items previously presented on a list. Cued recall is when a person receives a list of items to remember and is then offered cues to help them recall those items during testing. Serial recall refers to recalling events or items in the order in which they occurred (Baddeley, 2017).

Neural Correlates of Working Memory

Early studies that used resting-state functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) have shown that large-scale brain regions exhibit high-amplitude fluctuations, which are enhanced during rest and reduced during cognitive tasks (Konrad and Eickhoff, 2010; Castellanos and Proal, 2012). This intrinsic functional inter-neuronal connection represents the brain’s physiological reference and the so-called default mode network (DMN; Konrad and Eickhoff, 2010; Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The DMN involves the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (amPFC), the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), the medial temporal lobe (MTL) subsystem, and the dorsomedial PFC (dmPFC) subsystem (Castellanos and Proal, 2012).

The executive control network (ECN), also known as the frontoparietal network, includes the dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC), anterior PFC (aPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), lateral frontal pole, lateral cerebellum, anterior insula, caudate, and inferior parietal lobe (Konrad and Eickhoff, 2010; Castellanos and Proal, 2012). This circuit has been defined as the task-positive circuit as it shows more activity during tasks than during rest (Konrad and Eickhoff, 2010). It also directs decision making by incorporating exterior stimuli with the corresponding interior representations (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The DMN and ECN are inversely correlated as the activation of the ECN is associated with lower activity of the DMN and vice versa (Konrad and Eickhoff, 2010).

The dorsal attentional network includes the intraparietal sulcus and frontal eye fields, which are essential in attention shifting and control (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The ventral attentional network, also known as the salience network (SN), involves the fronto-insular cortex (FIC), temporoparietal junction and supramarginal gyrus (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The visual network includes the visual cortex and lateral temporal region MT+, which is linked to DAN via the superior parietal lobule and intraparietal cortex (IPC). MT+ also is connected with frontal areas (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The occipital cortex, which contains most of the visual cortex regions, interacts with DAN to hold attention and suppress attention to the distractor (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). The motor network involves simultaneous spontaneous low-amplitude fluctuations between the supplementary motor cortex, primary motor cortex, primary and secondary sensory cortex, putamen, cerebellum, thalamus, and ventral premotor cortex (Castellanos and Proal, 2012). These fundamental networks can be investigated in ADHD and other neurocognitive disorders (Castellanos and Proal, 2012).

Functional neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that working memory is related to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), inferior and middle temporal lobes, and zones close to the IPC (Fang et al., 2016). Similarly, these regions are linked to cognitive function, PLL, declarative memory, and episodic processing (Fang et al., 2016). Moreover, working memory task-based fMRI studies have shown that information encoding and manipulation is related to dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC). Error recognition and execution adjustment, on the other hand, are related to activity in the dorsal ACC (dACC), which is considered to be the attention organiser (Chai et al., 2018). Information selection, retrieval, and inhibition regulation are linked to neurons extending from the ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC) to the anterior insula (Fang et al., 2016). The left PFC and the right PFC might be primarily associated with verbal working memory and spatial working memory, respectively, as indicated in previous meta-analyses (Emch et al., 2019). However, there is no common agreement on the functional organisation of this brain region (Emch et al., 2019).

fMRI studies have also proposed that the articulatory loop is linked to Broca’s area, premotor cortex (BA6), supplementary motor area, and insula on the left hemisphere. The phonological store is linked to BA 40, relating to the inferior parietal lobule in the left hemisphere (Emch et al., 2019). Hence these areas are critical for all kinds of visual working memory tasks (Emch et al., 2019). The cerebellum has been suggested to be involved in subvocal rehearsal (Emch et al., 2019). Similarly, the basal ganglia (BG) are essential brain structures involved in motor control, facilitating appropriate motor behaviour and inhibiting inappropriate motor behaviour (Emch et al., 2019). The BG is also involved in working memory and language production (Emch et al., 2019). Furthermore, visual working memory is related to parts of the limbic system such as the cingulate (Emch et al., 2019). However, the contribution of the cerebellum, BG, and limbic system to working memory has long been undervalued (Emch et al., 2019).

In addition, studies that used resting-state fMRI have revealed that working memory functioning is related to resting-state neuronal activity (Fang et al., 2016). For example, Hampson et al. (2010), reported that working memory accuracy was related to the coherent neuronal interconnection between the dlPFC and medial PFC (Hampson et al., 2010; Fang et al., 2016). However, such complex cognitive functions are characterised by cooperation between multiple brain areas rather than being driven by one or two regions (Fang et al., 2016). Furthermore, the individual disparities in working memory are related to the efficient functional connection from dlPFC to Dacc and from the right dlPFC to the left FIC. The high sensitivity of left FIC to inputs from dlPFC assists in efficient manipulation of information and hence improved working memory functioning during working memory tasks (Fang et al., 2016).

Moreover, diffusion MRI in healthy individuals has also demonstrated that working memory capacity is linked to a corticocortical pathway between the frontal and parietal regions. In addition, the updating of working memory information included a subcortical neural pathway linking between frontal and parietal regions through the thalamus and BG (Ekman et al., 2016). Moreover, working memory capacity is directly correlated to the integrity of white matter in frontal and parietal regions on diffusion MRI (Ekman et al., 2016).

Cognitive Deficits in ADHD

Although many cognitive targets have been investigated in ADHD (see Table 2), this review focuses on working memory. Working memory deficits are an important potential endophenotype of ADHD (Kasper et al., 2012; Chacko et al., 2013). The earliest model of the neuropsychological correlate of ADHD was the prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar model (Castellanos and Proal, 2012).

Table 2. Examples of commonly investigated cognitive tests in ADHD.

Animal Studies

Animal models of ADHD show good predictive validity that allows the assessment and development of new therapeutic interventions. For example, they have shown polymorphism in several genes related to catecholaminergic neurotransmission. These include the dopamine transporter (DAT), dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4), and dopamine beta-hydroxylase genes. A lack of DAT results in decreased release of dopamine from the nerve terminal, which is accompanied by a fivefold increase in the concentration of extracellular dopamine. On the presynaptic side, mRNA and D1 and D2 receptor protein levels in the BG decrease. Compounds such as amphetamine, methylphenidate, and cocaine have a direct action on DATs and inhibit hyperactivity (Rahi and Kumar, 2021). While studies with transgenic mice have provided valuable information on the neurobiological factors underlying ADHD, no single gene or transgenic animal model represents the entire ADHD spectrum. Therefore, complex gene-gene as well gene-environment interactions must also be taken into account.

Human Studies

Recent studies propose that working memory deficits occur in approximately 80–85% of children with ADHD when evaluated with cognitive tasks (Coghill et al., 2014; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kofler et al., 2018a, 2020). Studies have also shown that children with ADHD have more working memory deficits than typically developing children (Kasper et al., 2012). Several studies have shown that children diagnosed with ADHD are impaired in all working memory elements, with the most significant impairment found in the central executive, resulting in an inability to focus on a task (Kofler et al., 2010).

Working memory deficits have been linked with inattention (Kofler et al., 2010), hyperactivity (Hudec et al., 2015), and impulsivity (Raiker et al., 2012). They have been associated with ADHD-related impairment in academics (Friedman et al., 2018), organisational (Kofler et al., 2018b), social (Bunford et al., 2015), and family life (Kofler et al., 2017). Longitudinal studies show that less severe working memory deficits are associated with lower symptom severity (Halperin et al., 2008; van Lieshout et al., 2016; Salari et al., 2017), and reductions in ADHD symptoms with age seem to be limited to a subset of children who show improvements in working memory over time (Karalunas et al., 2017). These studies highlight the significant influence that working memory has on the symptomatology of many children with ADHD and have motivated a recent surge in studies aiming to enhance working memory in children with ADHD (Kofler et al., 2018a).

Neural Correlates of ADHD

Functional neuroimaging studies using specific or multiple cognitive tasks in ADHD patients have found widespread multiregional dysfunctions. These include the lateral PFC and its connection to the BG, medio- and orbitofrontal regions, and the cingulate cortex. In addition, dissociation in neural connectivity in the frontoparietal, fronto-limbic and fronto-cerebellar networks have also been observed.

A meta-analysis of fMRI studies that were conducted on ADHD patients (n = 111) and controls (n = 113), revealed a reduction in neural activity in superior and middle PFC in both hemispheres, as well as the medial frontal cortex and ACC in the left hemisphere. A recent functional MRI study investigated more than 100 children and adults with ADHD using a visual-spatial working memory task. It showed two separate effects according to working memory demand: enhancement of neural activity in the inferior prefrontal cortex (IFC) under high working memory demand and a reduction in neural activity in IFC under low working memory demand (Rubia, 2018).

Working Memory Training

Working memory training aims to improve working memory through a series of tasks that help the trainee engage and practice this cognitive function. Prevalent are computerised cognitive training (CCT) interventions, which can provide training in a wide range of cognitive tasks (e.g., working memory, attention, inhibitory control) in multiple training sessions over several weeks, often in a game format design (Table 3). The duration and number of sessions differ according to each specific implemented program (Veloso et al., 2019). CCT is described as adaptive when the level of task difficulty is automatically adapted to the user’s performance, and the training sessions can be accomplished in any preferred setting (e.g., a clinic, home, or school; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2014).

Table 3. Common cognitive interventions.

Available CCT products that include working memory training are listed in Table 4 and include the Cogmed Working Memory Training (Klingberg et al., 2005; Beck et al., 2010; Green et al., 2012; Chacko et al., 2013; Egeland et al., 2013; Hovik et al., 2013; van Dongen-Boomsma et al., 2014; van der Donk et al., 2015; Bigorra et al., 2016), BrainTrain (Steiner et al., 2014), Braingame Brian (van der Oord et al., 2014), CogniPlus (Minder et al., 2018), Activate (Sinnari et al., 2019), Project: Evo (Davis et al., 2018), Attention Pay (van der Donk et al., 2015), Persian software (Azami et al., 2016), Lumosity (Azami et al., 2016), and Captain’s log (Rabiner et al., 2010). These products have similar goals but differ in the extent to which they include elements like acquiring points, providing feedback, representing skill progression, accumulating rewards, and framing the training within a narrative context (Oldrati et al., 2020).

Table 4. CCT Products.

The Cogmed Working Memory Training program (CWMT, Pearson, UK) has become the most popular and widely studied CCT program, and it has both supporters and detractors (Shinaver et al., 2014; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2014). The program consists of sessions of working memory tasks in the form of simple games on a computer or tablet. The training sessions take around 45–50 min to complete, 5 days per week, over 5 weeks, with weekly rewards. The complexity of the tasks is automatically adjusted based on the person’s performance.

Effects of Working Memory Training

In this section, we discuss the evidence for the efficacy of working memory training in the general population, which helps us understand its potential role in ADHD management. Figure 1 provides an overview of the potential mechanisms to improve working memory.

Figure 1. (A) Proposed mechanism of cognitive ability enhancement using working memory training, as explained by von Bastian et al. (2013). (B) An association-test map displaying brain regions that were consistently reported in 1091 studies investigating working memory. Working memory training engages executive and dorsal attentional networks. This involves brain regions like dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate (AC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and parietal regions. Map prepared using Neurosynth meta-analysis of the term working memory (Yarkoni et al., 2011). Similar neural networks show decreased signals in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) patients performing working memory tasks.

Two general mechanisms explain the effects of working memory training (von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014). The first is increased working memory capacity, which enables people to hold more items in their working memory, and the second is increased efficiency in using available working memory capacity.

At the behavioural level, an increase in working memory capacity results in performance improvements in tasks on which the person was not trained, but that share some variance with the training tasks (Klingberg, 2010). Given that working memory capacity significantly correlates with several cognitive abilities, these improvements should manifest in several measures which are independent of the precise materials and structure of the tasks (Schmiedek et al., 2010). In general, two terms are used to define the transfer of training: (1) near-transfer which refers to gains in abilities directly related to the training task; and (2) far-transfer, which are gains in different but related abilities.

Meiran, Dreisbach, and von Bastian noted in 2019 that while meta-analyses assessing the existence of far-transfer benefits of working memory training have found negative (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016), limited or short-lived positive results (Au et al., 2015), performance gains on similar tasks are substantial, and trainees typically performing above average after training. For example, in one study, young adults could recall twice as many items from a list as the average healthy adult after 20 sessions of working memory training (von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014).

Understanding the neural correlates of training-induced improvements would help guide and monitor training strategies. However, this is challenging given the existence of many parallel behavioural changes that occur during working memory training (Klingberg, 2010). There are, however, studies that show a positive correlation between working memory capacity and brain activity in different task-relevant areas. For example, inter-individual differences in working memory capacity positively correlate with activity in the IPC (Gray et al., 2003; Todd and Marois, 2004; Vogel and Machizawa, 2004; Lee et al., 2006; McNab and Klingberg, 2008) and increases in working memory capacity during childhood are positively correlated with brain activity in the prefrontal cortex and intraparietal sulcus (Klingberg et al., 2002; Kwon et al., 2002; Ciesielski et al., 2006; Crone et al., 2006; Scherf et al., 2006; Olesen et al., 2007). On the other hand, the decline in working memory during ageing is associated with decreased activity in certain prefrontal areas (Rajah and D’Esposito, 2005; Persson and Nyberg, 2006).

To assess the effects of working memory training on the brain, most neuroimaging studies have relied on recording changes in the activity of brain regions during working memory task performance before and after training (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). Working memory training is associated with changes in the neuronal activity of brain regions that are activated during working memory tasks before training (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). This finding suggests that improvements in task performance during working memory training reflect improved working memory capacity (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016).

Earlier research with healthy adults using fMRI suggests that working memory training has a direct effect on the prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, and dopamine receptor binding. Studies have shown that working memory training results in enhanced neuronal activity in the prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex, which are areas linked to working memory processing (Green et al., 2012). Working memory training also increases the density of D1 receptors in these brain regions (Green et al., 2012) and increases activity in the striatum (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). Although this change in striatal activity is not consistent, it is predictive of working memory capacity changes during development (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016).

Several studies of the brain’s functional connectivity have shown that stronger functional connectivity between frontal and parietal cortices plays a significant role in working memory improvement with training (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). A study using TMS of the parietal cortex during training on higher-demand working memory tasks revealed stronger functional connectivity between the frontal cortex and the parietal cortex, and between the parietal cortex and the occipital cortex (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). Furthermore, a magnetoencephalography study of functional connectivity changes during, before, and after working memory training found increased connectivity between frontal, parietal and lateral occipital cortex, which was associated with working memory improvements (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016).

An increase in synaptic connection and myelin density in axons connecting the involved regions might be the mechanism underlying training-related functional connectivity changes (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). As previously mentioned, dopamine plays an important role during working memory training (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). Positron emission tomography studies in humans and other animals have shown that working memory training results in changes in the release of dopamine as well as the density of dopamine receptors (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). Changes in striatal dopamine release might also enable cortical plasticity (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016).

Working Memory Training in ADHD

Several studies have provided evidence for the efficacy of working memory training in ADHD. A meta-analysis of 54 studies investigating a range of CCT programs (including most of the ones mentioned above) showed that they were associated with improvements in working memory, as well as other elements of executive functioning, in people with ADHD (Veloso et al., 2019). Importantly, the majority of studies involving longitudinal follow-up showed that these improvements were maintained over time.

The reason CWMT attracts more attention compared to most other CCT programs likely stems from the fact that its effectiveness has been established by several studies (Simons et al., 2016). Furthermore, studies investigating the effects of CWMT tend to have a better experimental design, often including active controls. These randomised controlled trials of CWMT provide strong evidence that it enhances performance on other working memory tasks that have similar processing demands. While other CCT programs have been shown to improve working memory, evidence for this from randomised controlled trials is often lacking. Furthermore, when randomised controlled trials of these interventions are conducted, they are often compared with passive control groups (Simons et al., 2016). Due to its widespread use, popularity, and strong evidence for its efficacy, the following section will focus on studies utilising CWMT.

Table 5. Evidence for the efficacy of Working Memory Training (WMT) in ADHD.

Several studies have found significant clinical effects on executive functions in ADHD individuals following CWMT intervention (Table 5). Klingberg et al. (2005) conducted the first randomised controlled trial of CWMT in 53 children with ADHD who were randomised to either adaptive (adjusted to the user’s performance) or non-adaptive CWMT (not adjusted to the user’s performance) This research showed that adaptive CWMT resulted in significant improvement of working memory, inhibition control, complex reasoning, and a reduction in ADHD symptoms on the parent-rating scale; these effects were maintained at a post-training 3 months follow-up. Gray et al. (2012) evaluated the impact of CWMT on working memory in a sample of 60 youth who were diagnosed with ADHD and learning disability. The main finding was that CWMT improved visuospatial working memory and visual working memory, and also led to gains in attention, math, and reading.

Consistent with the findings of previous studies, Holmes et al. (2010) found that CWMT produced significant clinical effects in a sample of 25 children with ADHD, who were assessed before and after training as well as on and off medication. The researchers concluded that, although medication significantly improved visuospatial working memory, CWMT led to significant gains on multiple memory tasks such as visuospatial working memory, visual working memory, visuospatial short term memory, and verbal short term memory. The improvements lasted for at least 6 months after training and were larger than the effect of the medication alone.

In a different study, Beck et al. (2010) found that children with ADHD who underwent CWMT showed an improvement in working memory and a reduction in inattention along with an increase in positive behaviours compared to age-typical children in the wait-list group. These improvements were still noticed by their parents 4 months later. However, the study reported no positive effects on hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms rated by their patients and teachers (Beck et al., 2010). Similarly, Green et al. (2012) reported that adaptive-CWMT in ADHD children led to significant gains in working memory tasks, but there was no effect on ADHD symptoms rated by the parents (Gray et al., 2012).

There is some evidence regarding the beneficial effects of CWMT on fluid intelligence, which may play a significant role in educational achievement (Kaufman et al., 2009). Bergman Nutley et al. (2011) found significant improvements on measures of fluid intelligence in children who trained on a non-verbal reasoning task. This finding was also replicated on working memory training tasks other than CogMed (i.e., N-Back), and lasted for at least 3 months post-training (Jaeggi et al., 2011). Söderqvist and Bergman Nutley (2015) reported that CWMT in typical learners led to higher academic achievement in math and reading 2 years after training.

Other studies have found less promising results with regards to CWMT outcomes. These studies concluded that, although CWMT led to improvements in certain aspects of working memory and executive function, these improvements failed to generalise to academic achievement (Chacko et al., 2013; Bigorra et al., 2016). Similarly, a previous meta-analysis that examined the effectiveness of cognitive training in children with ADHD concluded that there is no significant effect of training on the cognitive, behavioural, and/or academic abilities of these children (Rapport et al., 2013). However, the researchers stated that their findings might be due to methodological limitations across the reviewed studies. In line with the previous meta-analysis, Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) reported that working memory training resulted in short-term gains in working memory skills, but these gains do not generalise to other skills or persist for long periods.

With regards to the transfer effects of cognitive training, it has been theorised that training-based improvements in working memory capacity and attention generalise to other functioning domains. However, the results across the literature are inconsistent (Sala et al., 2019). CWMT has shown near-transfer effects in children diagnosed with ADHD, poor working memory, and/or attention deficits (Rossignoli-Palomeque et al., 2018). Far-transfer effects were reported on measures of reasoning and inhibition (Klingberg et al., 2005) and executive function (Holmes et al., 2010; Bigorra et al., 2016). Far-transfer effects were also reported on ADHD symptoms (Beck et al., 2010; Bigorra et al., 2016) as well as on academic abilities such as math (Holmes et al., 2010; Dahlin, 2013; Egeland et al., 2013) and reading (Egeland et al., 2013). The effects of training on near-transfer were short-lived, and on far-transfer ranged from 4 to 8 months (Rossignoli-Palomeque et al., 2018).

The inconsistent results regarding the effectiveness of cognitive training on improving ADHD cognition and behaviour may reflect differences in training strategy (exact training protocols, trained populations, concomitant treatment, etc). The heterogeneity of training strategies used in previous studies may itself reflect a lack of understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the response (or lack thereof) to cognitive interventions.

Factors Potentially Influencing The Effect of Working Memory Training

Several factors are known to influence the outcomes of CCT interventions, including characteristics of the training plan (such as the intensity, duration, adaptivity of the training task), as well as individual differences in age, cognitive abilities, biological factors, personality factors, motivational factors, and emotional factors (von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014; Barkus, 2020; Dentz et al., 2020). Awareness of the role of these factors may help optimise CCT strategies in the future.

Characteristics of the Training Plan

Most commercially available CCT programs target a mix of different cognitive skills. While this was thought to lead to more transfer effects than targeting single skills, empirical evidence for this – in the form of comprehensive direct comparisons between these strategies – is lacking. The little evidence that is available in this regard suggests that programs that provide intensive practise of one aspect of a cognitive function like working memory are probably more effective at achieving transfer effects than those that involve multiple cognitive skills (von Bastian et al., 2013).

There is considerable heterogeneity in the CCT literature regarding the number and duration of training sessions (Luis-Ruiz et al., 2020; Wiest et al., 2020; Grinberg et al., 2021). Importantly, few studies have attempted to directly determine the optimal length and intensity of CCT. Nonetheless, several studies have shown that the effect of such interventions is dose-dependent, meaning the length and intensity of these programs influence outcomes (Jaeggi et al., 2008; Alloway et al., 2013). Although many commercially available CCT products implement this, the influence of adapting to the individual trainee’s performance to maintain a level of difficulty that is challenging on performance gains is also controversial (von Bastian and Oberauer, 2014).

Characteristics of the Trainee

Several factors potentially contribute to the relatively high between-person variability in performance gains and transfer effects following working memory training. Working memory training programs tend to generally be more effective in younger than older individuals, with evidence suggesting that the relationship between age and training is linear throughout the lifespan (Wass et al., 2012; Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013). Characteristics such as intrinsic motivation (finding enjoyment or satisfaction in engaging in a particular behaviour) are known to correlate with working memory performance (Brose et al., 2010; Duckworth et al., 2011). Whether or not such characteristics directly influence the performance gains following CCT interventions has not yet been established. On the other hand, personality traits like neuroticism (related to higher excitability and emotional responsiveness) are associated with lower performance gains after working memory training (Studer-Luethi et al., 2012).

Twin studies show an estimated heritability of working memory capacity of around 50% (Ando et al., 2001). As previously mentioned, the importance of dopamine in this context is evidenced by the finding that working memory training increases dopaminergic receptor density and dopaminergic pathway activity (Green et al., 2012; Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016). In addition, working memory performance appears to be significantly influenced by dopamine-relevant genes (Bäckman and Nyberg, 2013). Carriers of the DAT1 9/10-repeat allele benefit more from working memory training compared to carriers of the DAT1 10-repeat allele (Brehmer et al., 2012). This difference may be explained by the fact that 10-repeat carriers have increased gene expression, which leads to a higher level of dopamine reuptake, and, consequently, fewer active dopaminergic pathways available (Swanson et al., 2000).

Another genetic factor that contributes to the availability of dopamine is the allelic variations in the LIM homeobox transcription factor 1 alpha (LMX1A; Nakatani et al., 2010). A study conducted by Colzato et al. (2011) showed that two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) that influence the number of dopamine neurons in the midbrain have a significant relationship with verbal working memory training.

Finally, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is involved in hippocampal plasticity, may also have a role in working memory training (Loprinzi and Frith, 2019). One example of this is the Val⁶⁶ Met SNP in the BDNF gene. In comparison to Val homozygotes, carriers with the Met allele perform poorer in certain memory tasks (Hariri et al., 2003) and have reduced hippocampal volume (Bueller et al., 2006). A comparison of Val/Val homozygotes with carriers of the Met allele (Colzato et al., 2011) showed that, while both groups improved during CCT, only the Val/Val homozygous individuals showed far-transfer to a divided attention task.

Discussion

ADHD has a complex and heterogeneous disorder and a one-size-fits-it-all treatment approach is likely to provide limited results in many cases. The present study provides a review of the neurocognitive mechanisms that underlie changes in working memory and how these mechanisms may influence the response to working memory training.

Cognitive training programs that target working memory are a potentially useful therapeutic option in ADHD. Response to working memory training may reflect changes in the neuronal activity of brain regions that are activated during working memory tasks before training (Constantinidis and Klingberg, 2016) and multiple factors may explain individual differences in response (Ando et al., 2001), such as the settings of the training regime and several individual factors.

Given that working memory capacity significantly correlates with several cognitive abilities, improvements in working memory capacity should manifest in several measures which are independent of the materials and structure of the tasks (Schmiedek et al., 2010; Rosenberg et al., 2020). The possibility of achieving near-transfer and far-transfer following working memory training arguably adds additional support in favour of researching and improving working memory training programs for ADHD.

Although pharmacological interventions such as stimulants provide a substantial improvement in ADHD cognitive symptoms, this comes at the cost of a higher risk of side effects. Cognitive training provides additional benefits above and beyond those of pharmacological interventions in ADHD, though additional studies of higher methodological quality comparing these two treatment strategies are necessary.

Author Contributions

MA-S, BA-J and AA: literature search, writing, editing, reviewing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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What Is the Link Between ADHD and Working Memory?

“Joseph was very articulate and our assessment with him took longer than usual as he asked questions frequently. He loves English and History and tried to begin many debates and discussions with us during the assessment. His mother says that he spends hours and hours researching topics that he finds interesting — these might not be related to school. However, his pattern of behavior on the Conners Rating Scale indicated a very high ADHD. When asked about his motivation levels, he was very apathetic and negative about his school and learning in general.”

Students with ADHD often have average or even high IQ. Yet they struggle with learning. I was quite puzzled by this for some time because usually high IQ scores are associated with good grades.

Then I noticed that another group of students displayed similar ADHD-type behaviors, such as fidgeting, being highly distractible, and lacking motivation.

How is it that students with ADHD and gifted students share similar IQ and behavior profiles, yet they have very different learning profiles?

The answer was in their working memory profile. The gifted students had excellent working memory, which was linked to their excellent grades. In contrast, the ADHD students’ poor working memory was linked to low achievement.

Average IQ does not always suggest average grades. If a student has a working memory problem, they can struggle academically even though they have average IQ ability.

The interesting thing about the working memory profile of a student with ADHD is that they do not have difficulties in short-term memory. In a testing situation, they can recall digits, words, instructions, and spatial locations at the same rate as their peers. In the classroom, they can usually remember what you have told them and repeat it back.

The problem arises when they actually have to manage or manipulate that information, in both verbal and visual domains. They struggle when they have to hold information in mind and use that to guide their behavior toward tasks or goals.

How reliable are these working memory deficits in students with ADHD? In order to answer this question, I looked at a range of executive function tests, such as inhibition, shifting, and planning actions, as well as working memory, to see which of these tests would be the best in identifying students with ADHD from their typically developing peers. Out of all the executive function and working memory tests, visual-spatial working memory was the test that was the best identifier of students with ADHD in the classroom.

This tells us that visual-spatial working memory deficits are such a prominent feature of students with ADHD and can be used as an additional diagnostic tool to identify them in the classroom.

Watch a video on the link between ADHD and working memory.

How ADHD Affects Working Memory

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects working memory as well as short- and long-term memory. In fact, poor memory is often listed as a symptom of ADHD, and numerous articles give great advice about dealing with ADHD forgetfulness and how to improve one’s memory. However, I and many others with ADHD can accurately remember certain facts or conversations years later. I’d like to discuss how ADHD’s relationship to working memory impacts our daily lives, why we struggle with memory, and what we can do about it.

ADHD and Working Memory Problems

People with ADHD struggle with “working memory,” a term that used to be interchangeable with “short-term memory.” While short-term memory involves holding information in the mind for a certain number of seconds, working memory is the ability to manipulate that information. Long-term memory is essentially a storage bank of information that exists thanks to short-term and working memory.

It makes sense that ADHDers struggle with working memory. We have a hard time prioritizing, and having a “good” memory involves paying attention to what is important. One study required children to remember specific words from a list. These were the “important” or priority words. Those with ADHD remembered the same number of words as those without the condition, but they were less likely to recall the important words.¹

ADHD and Problems with a Poor Working Memory

Having problems remembering things can cause troubles at home or work (ADHD Memories in Brief). It makes it hard to follow directions and instructions because they require holding multiple steps in mind. It can lead to losing important items and missing deadlines. Being forgetful also affects interpersonal relationships, due to unreliability or the inability to attend to a conversation. People with ADHD sometimes interrupt others because they are afraid of forgetting what they want to say.²

My poor working memory also affects me in small ways. Some people with ADHD read slowly because they keep re-reading sentences due to forgetting what they just read. I sometimes find myself entering and leaving a room multiple times because I get distracted. On the computer, I might close and reopen tabs or programs because I forget what I planned to do. It can be hard to draw from long-term memory as well. Though others tell me I have a strong vocabulary, it is difficult to think of the right words on the spot.

Information Overload and the Struggle with Working Memory and ADHD

Attention and memory are connected. I am often so distracted by the process of meeting someone that I immediately forget the person’s name. ADHD makes it hard to control one’s attention. Experts note that having problems with “source discrimination³” and “selective attention” lead to being “overwhelmed by unimportant stimuli.⁴“

In other words, we experience an information overload and do not know what to remember. It goes back to the test with the ADHD children who recalled the same number of words as their peers but not the “right” words. In addition, working memory is a process that organizes memories for long-term storage. If you are overwhelmed with information, it is difficult for that information to enter your brain in an organized manner. That makes it harder to store.

Interestingly, one study revealed that children with ADHD demonstrated widely varying working memory. On average, it was low, but when looked at individually, it showed that each ADHD child alternately processed problems quickly and slowly, though often as accurately as the other children.⁵

Tips to Improve Your ADHD Memory

In the video below, I speculate about why ADHDers can have excellent memories, and I offer a few tips for improving one’s memory.⁶ Do you have a good memory, is it terrible, or does it depend on the day? Thank you for checking this out, and let me know how your memory works in the comments.

Sources

1. Psychology in Action. Kate Humphreys. ADHD and Memory: Differences in What is Remembered.
2. ADDitude. Eileen Bailey. Say Goodbye to ‘Oh I Forgot’.
3. GoodTherapy. Memory Capacity in Individuals with ADHD.
4. Improve Memory Skills. Mark Beselt. ADHD and Memory.
5. Medical News Today. Catharine Paddock. Inconsistent Short Term Memory Linked To ADHD.
6. ADDitude. Edward Hallowell. When Sticky Notes Lose Their Power.

How to add RAM to your laptop yourself | Laptops | Blog

Requirements of programs (and especially games) for hardware are growing day by day. And a laptop, which until recently bore the proud name of “gaming”, one day suddenly ceases to suit gaming novelties – and very often it is the amount of RAM. Is there anything you can do about it?

Is it possible to increase the memory in a laptop?

The possibilities for upgrading laptops are much less than that of ordinary personal computers: the owner of a laptop can only dream of replacing a video card or installing an additional pair of hard drives.But with the RAM so far, not everything is so bad: on many laptops, the memory modules are still removable, moreover, sometimes there is a free slot on the laptop motherboard for an additional module.

So the algorithm for expanding the memory of a laptop is quite simple:

1. Find out the maximum amount of memory for your laptop.

2. Find out if your laptop has a free slot for memory modules.

• If available, find out the parameters of the installed module and buy a similar one.
• If not, find out which memory modules are supported by the laptop motherboard and buy larger and more modern ones.

3. Install or replace memory modules.

However, this algorithm may not be suitable for all users. Most modern netbooks and ultrabooks, all Macbooks from 2013, many Acer, ASUS and HP laptops have integrated memory: the RAM chips in them are soldered directly on the motherboard. It will not work to increase the amount of RAM in such laptops.

And how to find out if there is built-in memory or not? Find a description of your laptop model on the manufacturer’s or seller’s website and pay attention to the memory specifications. If it says “integrated” or “no memory added”, then, alas, it will not work to increase the amount of RAM on this model.

Well, for the rest of the laptops, consider all the points of the algorithm in more detail.

How do I know the maximum memory capacity of my laptop?

Refer to the documentation or the official website of the laptop manufacturer.The model specifications will most likely indicate the maximum supported memory size. If it is larger than the current one, you can move on. If you are not sure how much memory you have installed on your laptop, right-click on the My Computer icon and select Properties from the drop-down menu (Windows 7/8/10). The window that opens will show the amount of installed memory.

It is doubtful that it is worth reminding about this in 2020, but if you see “System type: 32-bit” on the above screen, then such a system will not see more than 4 GB of memory.There are no such problems for 64-bit systems.

How do I know if the motherboard has a free slot for a memory module?

It would seem that there is nothing difficult here – to open and see. Moreover, to install the modules, you still have to do it. Alas, this is often not as easy as it seems. Sometimes you have to disassemble almost the entire laptop to access the memory slots. And if the laptop has not yet expired, there will be additional problems in the form of warranty stickers.In order to find out without disassembling the laptop whether it has a free slot for the RAM, you will have to refer to the documentation or to the manufacturer’s website.

Recently, manufacturers have been releasing several versions of laptops at once, which practically do not differ in marking or even appear as the same model. To be sure to find out if your particular laptop has a free slot, you can use a free program to determine the characteristics of the motherboard – for example, CPU-Z.In the SPD (“speed”) tab, expand the drop-down list of memory slots. Most laptops have two slots – choose the last one.

Empty? This means that the slot is free. And you can double the current RAM of the laptop by simply installing a memory module in the second slot, similar to the one in the first. But keep in mind that programs do not always correctly determine the number of slots: if the official site says one thing, and CPU-Z says another, you should believe the first one.

What does “similar memory module” mean?

The memory modules must have the same basic parameters. Select in CPU-Z the slot occupied by the memory module – Slot # 1 and define it as type – it can be DDR2, DDR3, DDR3L or DDR4.

The type of the new memory module must be exactly the same, with no exceptions. A module with a different type of memory simply will not fit into the slot. And if you manage to insert a DDR4 die into the DDR2 slot (which can be done with some effort), then this will end with the death of the memory module, and most likely, the motherboard at the same time.

The coincidence of the following characteristics is not necessary, but highly desirable – especially on DDR2:

• Frequency (Max Bandwidth) – can be 800 MHz, 1066 MHz, 1333 MHz and so on. The frequency determines the speed of working with memory. If different modules have different frequencies, then both will operate at the frequency of the slowest. Therefore, the new module must have the same frequency or even higher.
• Volume (Module Size) – 2048 MBytes, 4096 MBytes and so on.
• Rank (Ranks) – Single or Dual.
• Timings (The last column in the Timings Table) – we are interested in the first four values, these can be sets of the form 11-11-11-28, 9-9-9-36, 9-9-9-24, etc. p.

What if I can’t find a suitable memory?

The memory type (DDR, DDR2, DDR3, etc.) must match in any case. However, there may be problems with the purchase of new DDR and DDR2 modules – these are outdated standards that are practically not found in stores.

And for current DDR3 and DDR4, full coincidence of these parameters on all memory modules is not strictly necessary – many motherboards will work correctly with installed dies of different ranks, frequencies and sizes. But there are also rare “fussy” among motherboards that will not start with modules of different ranks, or will not work in the most optimal way. Therefore, when purchasing a new module, it is recommended to select the same parameters as those of the already installed one. If for some reason this cannot be done, then make sure that the frequency of the new module is not lower, and the timings are higher than that of the installed one.

What if there are no free memory slots?

Don’t get upset – it means that you don’t need to be tied to an already installed and probably outdated memory module. You can increase the amount of memory, you just have to not add it, but change it completely.

One high-quality, voluminous, fast memory stick will cost more than installing an additional module, but there is not much choice with a single slot. And here it makes sense to understand a little with the parameters of memory modules:

The type of memory will remain the same – different DDR versions are not compatible with each other.But you can play around with other parameters.

Determine the maximum memory frequency for your laptop (this information can also be found on the manufacturer’s or retailer’s website).

The higher the frequency of memory, the faster it works, but it makes no sense to buy a module with a frequency higher than the motherboard supports – in this case, you will simply waste money (fast memory modules are more expensive than slow ones). It is hardly worth saying anything about the amount of memory – everyone knows that the more, the better.Here you should focus only on the maximum amount of memory supported by the laptop and on your wallet.

When buying a new memory, it makes sense to turn to timings – memory access delays. The lower the timings, the faster the memory, but only modules of the same frequency should be compared by them. (Timing 15 for a frequency of 2400 MHz in terms of delay is comparable to timing 5 for a frequency of 800 MHz: 1/2400 * 15 = 1/800 * 5).

Main timings:

Note also chip location .This does not affect speed characteristics, but chips with double-sided chips are usually thicker and may not physically fit into a laptop case if they are cramped.

Can the memory be installed without disassembling the laptop?

Only if the notebook has a service cover or RAM slot. Turn the laptop over and look for a small (about 7×9 cm) cover with screws – there will be RAM modules under it.

There is no such small cover? Perhaps there is a large cover for a good half of the area of ​​the entire bottom?

But in general, if there is at least some hatch, you should look under it – after disconnecting the laptop from the mains, removing the battery and making sure that the cover is not covered with a warranty sticker, if the laptop is still under warranty.If memory modules are found under the hatch, then you are in luck – you will not have to disassemble the laptop further to replace the RAM.

No hatch, no covers, what should I do?

It is still not too late to give up the idea of ​​an independent upgrade and contact a specialized service center.

Or, after carefully realizing all possible risks and assessing your own strengths, disassemble the laptop. On different models, this may be due to difficulties of different levels – on some it is enough to unscrew a couple of small self-tapping screws and bend a dozen latches, on others you will have to remove a couple of dozen different screws, remove the keyboard and touchpad, remove a couple of flat cables from the fragile knife connectors, etc. …In any case, you should not start disassembling “at random” – there is a very high chance, if not “kill” the laptop at all, then at least break a couple of plastic casing latches.

First you should look for disassembly of your model on the Internet – and only after finding detailed instructions, take up a screwdriver. If the description of the disassembly looks frightening, and you are not confident in your abilities, it is better to entrust this work to the professionals from the service center.

And what kind of stickers interfere with disassembling the laptop?

Warranty stickers protect the device against unauthorized opening.They are usually glued over the service door or one of the screws holding the cover.

Stickers can also be inside – on installed memory modules or even on an empty slot. Damage to any of the labels will void your warranty. If the warranty is still valid, and you do not want to lose it, you can add RAM only through an authorized service center.

How to remove / install a memory module?

So, you have reached the memory slots, and nothing prevents you from starting to replace / install memory modules.Did you forget to unplug your laptop and remove the battery? That’s not all – memory modules are “afraid” of static electricity, so it is useful to take some precautions:

• Do not wear synthetic or woolen clothing;
• do not touch the contacts of the modules, the legs of microcircuits and current-carrying tracks;
• Before using the notebook, “discharge” any static electricity by touching the battery or metal water pipe with your hand.

The modules are held in the slots by side latches, they must be pushed apart in different directions and the module is released. The new memory module is inserted into the slot at an angle, with some effort, all the way – the latches should firmly fix the module. Before installing the module, make sure you place it correctly, not upside down. To do this, check the position of the key – the recess in the contact row – it must correspond to the position of the counter protrusion in the slot. Make sure that the module “sits” evenly, without distortions, that both latches are fully engaged in the grooves on the sides of the module.

How to make sure that the memory is working without errors?

The fact that the computer turned on after replacing / installing memory modules does not mean that everything is in order – memory errors are one of the most insidious and can manifest themselves completely haphazardly. You can test the RAM using any of the specialized programs – for example, TestMem5. It differs from similar programs in ease of use – to check the memory, you just need to run the program and wait a few minutes.

The first few days after installing new modules, you should carefully monitor the system operation – the appearance of “blue screens of death”, unreasonable freezes and reboots can be symptoms of memory failures.

Can I add or replace random access memory (RAM) on my Mac: how to find it

The range of Apple computer products is quite large. Old models go down in history, leaving room for new, more advanced ones.The company’s laptops and desktops are very popular, with updates almost every year. But users are not always ready to change their usual gadget for a new one.

♥ ON TOPIC: How to type dollar symbol $, ruble ₽, euro € etc. on Mac

Enough performance, why not extend the life of your computer by simply increasing its RAM? And if it is easier to do it in a computer, then with a laptop the process becomes non-trivial.In addition, recently Apple no longer supports upgrading RAM in its laptops.

Now many Macs (mainly laptops) come with RAM soldered directly to the motherboard. At this point, it will not be possible to pull out one bar from the slot and put another one in its place. Sometimes it is useful to know if it is possible to upgrade the RAM in a laptop or not. This is especially critical in the case of purchasing a MacBook from hands or in a store, when there is simply no time for a thorough study of the technical documentation for this model.

♥ ON TOPIC: What is the resource of the MacBook battery and how to find out the number of recharge cycles.

How do you know if you can add or replace RAM on a Mac (iMac, MacBook, Mac Pro, Mac mini, etc.) and how many RAM slots are there?

But there is a simple solution that allows you to get the required information. Just click on the Apple logo () in the upper left corner and open the “ About This Mac ” menu.

The Memory tab is present

Check if there is a tab “ Memory ” in the window that appears.

If it is missing, then on this Mac the memory is soldered directly to the motherboard and there is no opportunity for an upgrade.

Tab No memory

If this tab is present in the window “ About This Mac “, you can conclude about the potential for replacing the RAM and see the number of occupied and free RAM slots.

See also:

90,000 Feat of the people

To view the site with support for major innovations, it is recommended to use the browser application Microsoft Internet Explorer 10, Mozilla Firefox 4, Google Chrome 5, Opera 11.5, Safari 5.0 and higher.

Working with the site “People’s feat”

1. Description of the main page.
2. Search:

Description of the main page of the site “The feat of the people”

At the top of the main page of the OBD (as well as from any other page of the site) there are links that correspond to the main thematic sections of the site.A link is also available to go to the previous version of the site and change the language of the site interface (English and Russian languages ​​are available).

In the central part of the main page there is a general description of the site, as well as links to go to sections of the site, such as:

• People and awards;
• Award documents;
• geography of war.

At the bottom of the page there are banners with which the user can go to the websites of government organizations, the Memorial WBS website, the Victory Calendar website, the War Heroes website and the People’s Memory website.

An additional menu with the following categories is available under the banners on the main page (as well as from any other page of the site):

• About the project;
• Reviews;
• Feedback;
• Questions and Answers;
• Help.

Search

Search for information on any of the thematic sections can be performed in two stages:

1. search in normal mode , when, when defining search conditions, the user enters data in one search string, specifying them separated by a space;
2. extended search , when the user, when defining search conditions, fills in the maximum possible number of fields, indicating detailed information about the search object.

This type of search is the most effective because it allows you to get the result that most closely matches the user’s requests.

To start searching for information on any of the thematic sections, you need to hover the pointer over the name of the corresponding section (on the link at the top of the page or in the central part of the main page):

Search in the thematic section “People and awards”

Search in the thematic section “People and awards” allows you to find information about the award, using the personal data of the awarded.

Normal search

For a quick search, go to the “People and awards” section by left-clicking on the section heading.

Enter available information in the search bar.

If necessary, you can select the number of records that will be displayed on one page of search results (by default, 50 records per page are displayed), it is possible to select the following values: 10, 30, 50 or 100.

To get the search result, press the button “Search” or the key on the keyboard.

Advanced Search

To perform an advanced search for information about the award, you must:

1. go to the section “People and awards”;
2. press the button “Advanced search” ;

A search form will open with the following fields available for filling:

• Surname;
• Name
• Patronymic;
• Year of birth;
• Title;
• Place of summoning;
• Clarification “Where to look”.

If you want to return to the search in normal mode, press the “Minimize” button.

If you need more specifying fields to perform a search, you should press the button “More
more ».
After that additional fields will be available, such as:

• Name of the award;
• Number of the award document;
• Date of the award document;
• Archive;
• Foundation;
• Inventory;
• From what year in the spacecraft;
• Item of storage.

To delete the entered values ​​from all fields, press the button “Clear” . You can then re-enter the values.

Then the search results will be displayed on the screen:

Search in the thematic section “Award documents”

Search in the thematic section “Documents” allows you to find decrees and orders for awarding.

Normal search

For a quick search, go to the “Award documents” section by left-clicking on the section title.

Enter available information in the search bar.

If necessary, you can select the number of records that will be displayed on one page of search results (by default, 50 records per page are displayed), it is possible to select the following values: 10, 30, 50 or 100.

To get a search result, press the button “Search” or key on the keyboard.

Advanced Search

To perform an advanced search for award documents, you must:

1. go to section “Award documents” ;
2. press the button “Advanced search” ;

A search form will open with the following fields available for filling:

• Document date;
• Reward.

If you want to return to the search in normal mode, press the button “Minimize” .

If you need more specifying fields for the search, you should press the button “More” .
After that additional fields will be available, such as:

• Record number in the database;
• Document number;
• Author;
• Archive;
• Foundation;
• Inventory;
• Item of storage.

To delete the entered values ​​from all fields, press the button “Clear” . You can then re-enter the values.

Then the search results will be displayed on the screen:

Search in the thematic section “Geography of war”

Search in the thematic section “Geography of War” allows you to search for data by location and time
developments.

Documents in the “Geography of War” section can be found using as search criteria the date of release of documents, geographic referencing to places of hostilities, linking to information about the military leader who issued the document.

Normal search

For a quick search, go to the “Geography of War” section by left-clicking on the section heading.

Enter available information in the search bar.

If necessary, you can select the number of records that will be displayed on one page of search results (by default, 50 records per page are displayed), it is possible to select the following values: 10, 30, 50 or 100.

To get the search result, press the button “Search” or the key on the keyboard.

Advanced Search

To perform an advanced search for award documents, you must:

1. go to the “Geography of War” section;
2. press the button “Advanced search” ;

A search form will open with the following fields available for filling:

• Document type;
• Document date;
• Combat operation;
• Geographical location.

If you want to return to the search in normal mode, press the button “Minimize” .

If you need more specifying fields to perform a search, you should press the button “More” .
After that additional fields will be available, such as:

• Document number;
• Name of the document;
• Author;
• Archive;
• Foundation;
• Inventory;
• Item of storage.

To delete the entered values ​​from all fields, press the button “Clear” . You can then re-enter the values.

Then the search results will be displayed on the screen:

Features of filling in search fields

When filling in the fields in the advanced search mode, the user can define the search method for each field:

• From the beginning of field – to search for documents, which at the beginning of the corresponding index field will contain the value specified by the user in this search field;
• Exact phrase – to search for documents in which the corresponding index field will contain a value consisting of one or more words (or numbers) in the same order as specified by the user in this search field;
• Exact field – to search for documents that have the exact value specified by the user in this search field in the corresponding index field;
• Full-text search – to search for documents in which the corresponding index field will contain the information specified by the user in this search field, regardless of the sequence of words.

The search method is determined in the drop-down list after clicking the button.
The list of available search methods may differ for different fields. For example, for field Fund , only the exact field search is available,
and for field Inventory , searches for “Exact phrase” and “Exact field” are available. An example of a drop-down list is shown in the figure below:

Working with search results

Search results “People and awards”

The search result for information about the heroes of war is displayed on the monitor screen in the form of a list.In this case, on each page of the search results, the number of found records will be displayed, which was specified by the user when defining the search conditions.

The first column of the list contains the row number of the search results.

The second column of the list indicates the data source, for example:

– data from the award documents;

– data from the card index;

– data from the anniversary card index.

The following is indicated: Date of birth / Title / Name of the award.

To move sequentially between pages, you can also use the buttons:

, to go to the next page;

, to go to the last page;

, to go to the previous page;

to go to the first page.

If the search results do not meet the user’s requirements, then he can return to the search page,
by clicking on the name of the section in which the search was carried out; at the same time, all completed search fields will remain
without changes.Alternatively, you can press the Back button in the web browser window to return to the previous page.

To view a specific record from among those found, point to it and press the left button
mice –
the information view page will appear on the screen.

At the top of the page buttons are displayed “To the previous search result” , “To the next result
search » These buttons allow you to navigate through the pages of information viewing according to the list of search results.

Below on the page you can find information about the person. In the column “Archival documents about this award”, links are highlighted in blue to go to the electronic images of these documents.

The electronic image of the document, which is presented on the page, contains a description of the feat for which the award was awarded.

To view the text of the order (decree), click on one of the links:

• first page of an order or decree;
• line in the award list;
• award sheet.

An electronic image of the selected document will open.

There is a navigation area for viewing the image:

go to the previous page of the document;

go to the next page of the document;

Next to the navigation area, there is a toolbar with two functions:

increasing the scale of the electronic image of the document;

reduction of the scale of the electronic image of the document;

when the button is pressed, the page of the electronic image of the document will be opened in
new tab,
then the open page can be printed or saved on your PC;

view a page of the document in full screen mode, to exit
full screen mode
you must click the button in the upper right corner.

Search results “Award documents”

The search result in the “Award documents” section is displayed on the monitor screen in the form of a list. In this case, on each page of the search results, the number of found records will be displayed, which was specified by the user when defining the search conditions.

Column information is structured as follows:

1. date of the document;
2. by whom it was published;
3. document number;
4. name of the document.

To sequentially move between pages, you can also use the buttons:

, to go to the next page;

, to go to the last page;

, to go to the previous page;

to go to the first page.

To go to the document viewing page, left-click in the line of the required document in
list of search results.

The buttons are displayed at the top of the page To the previous search result , To the next result
Search These buttons allow you to navigate through information viewing pages according to the list of search results.

Below on the page are images related to the found document.

To view the electronic image of the document, the navigation area is provided:

– go to the previous page of the document;

– go to the next page of the document;

Next to the navigation area, there is a toolbar with two functions:

increasing the scale of the electronic image of the document;

reduction of the scale of the electronic image of the document;

when the button is pressed, the page of the electronic image of the document will be opened in
new tab,
then the open page can be printed or saved on your PC;

view a page of the document in full screen mode, to exit
full screen mode
you must click the button in the upper right corner.

On hovering with the mouse, individual lines of the electronic document image can be defined as links
transition, for example, to the personal page:

To go to the personal page you need:

1. Move the mouse pointer over the line of the electronic image of the document;
2. click the left mouse button.

The line will be highlighted in red and a jump button will appear on the right side of the line.

3. push the button

After that the transition to the personal page will be made:

Search results “Geography of war”

The search result in the “Geography of War” section is displayed on the monitor screen as a list. Moreover, at each
results page
search will display the number of records found that was specified by the user when defining
search terms.

Column information is structured as follows:

1. date of the document;
2. by whom it was published;
3. document number;
4. document type.

To sequentially move between pages, you can also use the buttons:

, to go to the next page;

, to go to the last page;

, to go to the previous page;

to go to the first page.

If the search results do not meet the user’s requirements, then he can return to the search page,
by clicking on the name of the section in which the search was carried out; at the same time, all completed search fields will remain
without changes.
Alternatively, you can click the Back button in the web browser window to return to the previous page.

To go to the document viewing page, left-click in the line of the required document in
list of search results.

Links are displayed at the top of the page To the previous search result , To the next result
search
– these links allow you to navigate through the pages of information viewing according to the list of search results.

Below on the page provides information about the document.

To view the electronic image of the document, the navigation area is provided:

– go to the previous page of the document;

– go to the next page of the document;

Next to the navigation area, there is a toolbar with two functions:

– when the button is pressed, the page of the electronic image of the document will be opened in
new tab,
then the open page can be printed or saved on your computer;

– view the page of the document in full screen mode, to exit
full screen mode
you must click the button in the upper right corner.

To support the site’s latest version and innovations, we recommend using the following browser versions: Microsoft Internet Explorer 10, Mozilla Firefox 4, Google Chrome 5, Opera 11.5, Safari 5.0 and higher.

Main page

At the top of the Main page there is a menu, its items correspond to the main thematic sections of the “Feat of the People” website.

The central part of the Main page provides a general description of the website, as well as links to sections of the site:
90,018 90,019 people and awards;

An additional menu with the following sections is available at the bottom of the page:

• About the project, which contains information about the resource, access to which is provided to users of the website “Feat of the People”.
• Reviews, which contains reviews about the resource, access to which is provided to users of the website “Feat of the People”.
• Feedback, which contains a feedback form for users of the website “Feat of the People”.
• FAQ, which provides answers to user questions about the site, most frequently asked to the site Administration.
• Help, which provides information about thematic sections of the site and ways to work with them.

Search (only Russian)

The topic search in every section can be performed in two modes:

1. search in normal mode, when you define a search criteria by filling in the set of fields with the minimum information required to perform a search.
2. search in advanced mode, when you define the search criteria by filling as many fields as possible and specifying detailed information about the search object.

This type of search proves most effective as it produces the result that most closely meets to user’s needs.

To start searching for information on any of the thematic sections, point to the name of the corresponding section (in the main menu of the site or in the central part of the main page):

People and awards (only Russian)

Search in the thematic section “People and awards” allows you to find information about the award, using the personal data of the awarded ones.

The topic search in every section can be performed in two modes:

Search in Normal mode

For quick search, go to the “People and awards” section by clicking the left mouse button on:

1. section title;
2. section button in the center of the Main page;

Then type the available information into the search field and click the “Search” button or the “Enter” key on the keyboard.

If necessary, you can select the number of records to be displayed on one page of the search results (by default, 50 records per page): 10, 30, 50, or 100.

The example of the search page in normal mode is given below:

Search in Advanced mode

To perform an advanced search of award information:

1. go to the “Search and awards” section;
2. click the Advanced Search button;

If you need more fields to refine the search, click the “More” button.

When filling in fields in the advanced search mode, the user can define the search method for each field:

• From the beginning – to search for documents that at the beginning of the corresponding index field will contain the value specified by the user in this search field ;;
• Exact phrase – to search for documents that in a corresponding index field will contain a value consisting of one or more words (or digits) in the same order as specified by the user in this search field;
• Exact field – to search for documents that in the corresponding index field will contain the exact value specified by the user in this search field;
• Full text search – to search for documents that in the corresponding index field will contain information specified by the user in this search field, disregarding the sequence of words and their quantity.

Documents (only Russian)

Searching the thematic section “Documents” allows you to find decrees and orders on rewarding.

The topic search in every section can be performed in two modes:

Search in Normal mode

For quick search, go to the “Documents” section by clicking the left mouse button on:

1. section title;
2. section button in the center of the Main page;

Then type the available information into the search field and click the “Search” button or the “Enter” key on the keyboard.

If necessary, you can select the number of records to be displayed on one page of the search results (by default, 50 records per page): 10, 30, 50, or 100.

Geography of War (only Russian)

Searching the thematic section “Geography of war” allows you to find data by location and time of events.

The documents in the “Geography of war” section can be found using the date of issue of documents as search criteria, or geographical reference to the locations of combat operations, or the information about the military commander who issued the document.

The topic search in every section can be performed in two modes:

Search in Normal mode

For quick search, go to the “Geography of war” section by clicking the left mouse button on:

1. section title;
2. section button in the center of the Main page;

Then type the available information into the search field and click the “Search” button or the “Enter” key on the keyboard.

If necessary, you can select the number of records to be displayed on one page of the search results (by default, 50 records per page): 10, 30, 50, or 100.

Search results

The results of searching for a war hero information are displayed as a list. Each page of the search results will display that number of records, which was specified by the user when determining the search conditions.

The first column in the list contains the row number of the search results.

The second column of the list indicates the data source, for example:

– data from the award documents;

– data from the card index;

– commemorative index data.

To navigate through the search results pages, click the button and select the number of the desired page from the drop-down list at the top of the search results page ..

To navigate between pages in sequence, you can also use the buttons:

, to go to the next page;

, to go to the last page;

, to go to the previous page;

, to go to the first page.

If the search results do not meet the user’s needs, then you can return to the search page by clicking on the name of the section in which the search was performed; in this case, all the completed search fields will remain unchanged. You can also click the “Back” button in the browser window to return to the previous page.

To view a particular record from among those found, point to it and click the left mouse button – the View information page will appear on the screen.

The electronic image of the document displayed on the page contains a description of the feat for which the decoration was awarded.

At the top of the page you can find the links To previous search result, To next search results – these links allow you to navigate through the pages with the required information according to the search results list.

The information about the personality is given below on the page. In the column “Archival documents on this award” the links to the electronic images of documents associated with this award and personality are highlighted in blue.

How to save contacts to memory card on Samsung Galaxy

Contents

1. When to save contacts to a file

If you do not store contacts in Google or Samsung accounts, save contacts to a file and transfer to your computer:

• after adding or changing numbers;
• before dumping data;
• before contacting the service center.

If you store contacts in your Google or Samsung account, there is no point in saving them to a file. The main thing is not to forget the username and password from
account.

2. How will contacts be saved

Contacts will be saved to file VCF is the most common format for storing contacts. From such
file, you can restore contacts on almost any device.

3.How to save (copy) contacts to a file

Below you will find instructions for the different versions of Android.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Click the three dashes to the left.

3. Select Manage Contacts.

4. Select Import or Export Contacts.

5. Select Export.

6. Select the location to save the file: device memory or memory card, and click Export.

7. The contacts are copied to the selected memory.Click OK.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Press Options, may look like three dots at the top right or along the
   center.

3. Select Manage Contacts.

4. Select Import / Export Contacts.

5. Select Export.

6. Select the location to save the file: device memory or memory card.

7. Click Export.

8. The contacts are copied to the selected memory. Click Back.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Press Options, may look like three dots at the top right.

3. Select Manage Contacts. If there is no such item,
   select Settings.

4. Select Contacts. If there is no such item, go to
   next step.

5. Select Import / Export Contacts.

6. Select Export (Export to SD card).

7. Select the location to save the file: device memory or memory card.

8. The contacts are copied to the selected memory.Click Back.

4. Where to find the saved file with contacts

The file is saved in the root folder of the internal memory or memory card. To find it, open the My
files on the device.

5. How to restore (copy) contacts from file

Below you will find instructions for the different versions of Android.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Click the three dashes to the left.

3. Select Manage Contacts.

4. Select Import or Export Contacts.

5. Select Import.

6. Select the memory from where to load the file with contacts. If there are several files, select the required
   file.

7. Select the memory to download contacts to and click Import.

8. The contacts are copied to the selected memory.Click OK.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Press Options, may look like three dots at the top right or along the
   center.

3. Select Manage Contacts.

4. Select Import / Export Contacts.

5. Select Import.

6. Select the location where the file with contacts is located: device memory or memory card.

7. Select a file with contacts and press Done.

8. Select the location where you want to save your contacts. We recommend using a Google account.

9. Click Import.

10. The contacts are copied to the selected memory. Click Back.

1. Open the Contacts app.

2. Press Options, may look like three dots at the top right.

3. Select Manage Contacts. If there is no such item,
   select Settings.

4. Select Contacts.If there is no such item, go to
   next step.

5. Select Import / Export Contacts.

6. Select Import.

7. Select the location where the file with contacts is located: device memory or memory card.

8. Select the location where you want to save your contacts. We recommend using a Google account.

9. Select a file with contacts and press Done.

10. The contacts are copied to the selected memory.Click Back.

6. After restoration, contacts were duplicated

When restoring, contacts from a file are added to the contacts in the device memory. If you have any contacts
both in memory and in a file, they will be duplicated.

To avoid this, delete all contacts from the device memory, and then restore them from the file.

HP Desktop PCs – Capacity Expansion (Upgrades) Memory (RAM)

Before upgrading memory, you need to know how much memory is currently installed to determine how much memory you can add.Follow these steps for your computer’s BIOS version to find out the memory configuration and determine how much memory you can purchase and install.

Select the BIOS version for your computer. If you are not sure which BIOS version is installed on your computer, start over to see if the steps work. If not, use a different section.

Finding memory settings in BIOS 7 and later

Follow these steps to check the availability of computer memory in BIOS:

1. Turn off your computer and wait 5 seconds.

   Completely shut down your Windows 8 computer using the following steps.

   1. Press the Windows + I keys at the same time.

      The Settings charm opens on the right side of the screen.

   2. Press Power, press and hold the Shift key, then select Shut Down.

2. Turn on the computer.

3. When the first screen appears, immediately press the F10 key several times every second until the Computer Setup window appears.

4. In BIOS Setup, select File, then select System Information.

5. Find memory information.

6. To find the total memory capacity that can be added to , subtract the installed memory capacity from the maximum capacity supported by your computer. To find out the maximum memory capacity your computer can support, see Finding information about the memory installed in your computer model.

7. For the memory capacity in each memory slot, divide the maximum memory supported by your computer by the number of memory slots on the system board. Typically this is the maximum capacity of for each memory module slot. For example, if your computer supports no more than 4096 MB (4 GB) of RAM and the motherboard has 4 memory slots, the capacity of the memory module installed in each slot should not exceed 1 MB.

Finding memory settings in BIOS 6 and earlier

Follow these steps to check the availability of computer memory in BIOS:

1. Turn off your computer and wait 5 seconds.

2. Turn on the computer.

3. When the first screen appears, do one of the following:

   • Press F10 immediately if your computer was manufactured in 2006 or later (shipped with Windows Vista or Windows 7).Press the key every second until the BIOS setup window appears.

   • Press F1 immediately if your computer was manufactured before 2006 (Windows XP or earlier). Press the key every second until the BIOS setup window appears.

     Note.

     On some Compaq Presario computers (manufactured before 2002), press the F10 key when the logo screen appears.

4. In the main screen, find the line “Installed memory”.This is the total amount of memory currently installed, as well as its current operating speed.

5. Then review the information in the Memory Bank section. The number of memory banks is equal to the number of memory slots on the motherboard.

   The number next to each memory bank corresponds to the memory capacity for the module installed in that bank. If this value is not specified, it means that this memory slot (bank) is empty.

6. To find the total memory capacity that can be added to , subtract the installed memory capacity from the maximum capacity supported by your computer.To find out the maximum memory capacity your computer can support, see Finding information about the memory installed in your computer model.

7. For the memory capacity in each memory slot, divide the maximum memory supported by your computer by the number of memory slots on the system board. Typically this is the maximum capacity of for each memory module slot. For example, if your computer supports no more than 4096 MB (4 GB) of RAM and the motherboard has 4 memory slots, the capacity of the memory module installed in each slot should not exceed 1 MB.

Buy MacBook Pro – Apple (RU)

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How to Add More RAM to an Android Device with a MicroSD Card

Your Android device most likely has 16GB of storage, but it’s RAM that really affects what you can do with it. Most high-end Android devices come with 2GB or more of RAM, but some cheaper devices may only have 1GB of RAM or even 512MB in some cases.

Unlike PC

However, you cannot increase the RAM. Or can you?

Why do you need more RAM?

The importance of additional RAM cannot be overstated. While more storage gives you more photos, more MP3s, or more video clips, the extra RAM helps the processor run faster, thereby helping to play (or even create) such files.

For example, some playback problems are mistakenly accused of slow internet connections when in fact they can be accelerated by additional RAM rather than faster wireless connections.

There are various tricks to increase the usable memory on your Android

by “cleaning”. We’ll assume you’ve already tried them, and we’ll look at how you can physically increase the available RAM.

Swap RAM on rooted devices

If your Android device is rooted, you can increase the available RAM thanks to ROEHSOFT RAM Expander (SWAP) ($ 9.99 / £ 6.99) which is compatible with rooted Android

phones and tablets.

Expensive, but if your device is rooted and you are interested in this app, you can check compatibility with your device using this paging file checker app. Just install and then run the app to find out if ROEHSOFT RAM Expander (SWAP) is the app that can give you the results you want.

Press Run the RAMEXPANDER test here to get the results you want, select the SD card you want to check and Press for the result .After the “Congratulations” message is displayed, you can proceed and install the RAM Expander application.

Install RAM Expander

After the message displays, it’s time to purchase and install the ROEHSOFT RAM Expander (SWAP) app. After running and applying root permissions, select your language.

You will then see a slider screen that can be adjusted depending on how much RAM you want to allocate for the SWAP section.

If you are not sure about this, just press The optimal value of for the application to make the decision for you.Before proceeding, make sure the Autostart is enabled (it’s the toggle at the top of the screen), and when you’re happy, press the Swap Activ button.

With the RAM partition created on your device’s SD card, Android should now run with improved performance. Try your favorite game or try opening multiple apps at once.

What else do you need an SD card for?

MicroSD cards do more than just expand your RAM.Any user, rooted or non-rooted, can use a microSD card to expand their storage.

capacity – this means you can download more apps, more music and more,

On any device that is running out of space, the first step is to insert a microSD card into the slot if your device has one.

However, don’t buy the old microSD card

– spend a little more on storage that’s more resilient, which will improve reliability.When buying a new microSD card, check the box – a minimum of 4 classes is recommended, but better than 10 class.

You can use this storage to install apps and games, and move apps and games to it to increase the space on your primary storage device. Users running Android Lollipop

can do this initially by opening the Settings> Apps and using the Move to SD Card button on the apps where this feature is available.