Central nervous system cns. Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord Function and Structure Explained

05.07.197622.10.2021 by alexxlab

How does the spinal cord function within the central nervous system. What are the key components of the central nervous system. Why is the central nervous system unable to repair itself after injury. How do neurons communicate in the brain and spinal cord.

Содержание

The Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord

The central nervous system (CNS) is the master control center of the body, orchestrating a vast array of functions that govern our thoughts, movements, and bodily processes. At its core, the CNS consists of two primary components: the brain and the spinal cord. These intricate structures work in harmony to process information, initiate responses, and maintain the delicate balance necessary for life.

The Brain: Command Center of the Body

The brain serves as the body’s central processing unit, interpreting sensory input and coordinating responses. It is responsible for:

Processing information from our senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch)
Generating thoughts and emotions
Controlling voluntary and involuntary movements
Regulating vital functions like breathing and heart rate

The Spinal Cord: Information Superhighway

The spinal cord acts as a crucial communication bridge between the brain and the rest of the body. Its primary functions include:

Transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain
Carrying motor commands from the brain to muscles and organs
Coordinating certain reflexes independently of the brain

Unique Characteristics of the Central Nervous System

The CNS stands apart from other bodily systems due to its multifaceted nature and comprehensive control over various functions. While most organs and systems in the body have specific, singular roles, the CNS simultaneously manages an array of complex tasks.

How does the CNS differ from other bodily systems? The central nervous system’s ability to multitask sets it apart. It can simultaneously:

Control voluntary movements like speaking and walking
Regulate involuntary actions such as blinking and breathing
Process and interpret sensory information
Generate and manage thoughts, emotions, and perceptions
Coordinate responses to internal and external stimuli

Protective Mechanisms of the Central Nervous System

Given its critical importance, the CNS is equipped with multiple layers of protection to safeguard it from potential harm. These defensive measures include:

Physical Barriers

The skull and spinal column form a robust, bony shield around the brain and spinal cord, providing a formidable first line of defense against physical trauma.

Shock Absorption

Beneath the bony structures lies the syrnix, a fluid-filled space that acts as a cushion, absorbing shocks and minimizing the impact of sudden movements or jolts.

The Blood-Brain Barrier

This specialized boundary between blood vessels and brain tissue acts as a selective filter, preventing harmful substances from entering the CNS while allowing essential nutrients to pass through.

While these protective mechanisms are generally effective, they can sometimes exacerbate injuries to the CNS. How can the CNS’s protective features become problematic? In cases of trauma or inflammation, the rigid structure of the skull and spinal column can lead to increased intracranial pressure as tissues swell, potentially causing further damage if not promptly addressed.

The Challenge of CNS Regeneration

Unlike many other tissues in the body, the central nervous system has limited capacity for self-repair and regeneration. This limitation poses significant challenges for recovery from brain and spinal cord injuries.

Why is CNS regeneration so difficult? Several factors contribute to this challenge:

Highly specialized neurons: Many CNS neurons are so specialized that they cannot divide to create new cells.
Complexity of connections: The intricate network of neural connections makes it extremely difficult to recreate the precise pathways that existed before an injury.
Inhibitory environment: The CNS environment contains factors that inhibit axon regrowth.
Glial scar formation: After injury, astrocytes form a glial scar that acts as a barrier to regenerating axons.

Cellular Components of the Central Nervous System

The CNS is composed of various specialized cells, each playing a crucial role in its function and maintenance. Understanding these cellular components is essential for comprehending the complexities of CNS function and potential therapeutic approaches for injuries and disorders.

Neurons: The Information Processors

Neurons are the primary functional units of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting and processing information. The human brain and spinal cord contain approximately 100 billion neurons, with as many as 10,000 distinct subtypes identified.

What are the key parts of a neuron? A typical neuron consists of:

Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and maintains the cell’s vital functions
Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons
Axon: A long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body
Synapses: Specialized junctions where neurons communicate with other cells

Glial Cells: The Support System

Glial cells, once thought to be merely supportive, are now recognized as essential players in CNS function and health. The main types of glial cells include:

Astrocytes

These star-shaped cells perform various crucial functions:

Producing and secreting neurotrophic factors that support neuronal health
Regulating the concentration of neurotransmitters and ions in the extracellular space
Forming the blood-brain barrier
Participating in the immune response and scar formation after injury

Microglia

Acting as the immune cells of the CNS, microglia:

Monitor the CNS environment for potential threats
Respond to injury by migrating to the site and clearing away dead or dying cells
Produce cytokines that modulate the immune response

Oligodendrocytes

These cells are responsible for producing myelin, a fatty substance that insulates axons and enhances signal transmission. Myelinated axons can conduct electrical impulses at speeds up to 100 meters per second, compared to just 1 meter per second in unmyelinated fibers.

Synaptic Transmission: The Language of the Nervous System

Synapses are the specialized junctions where neurons communicate with each other and with target cells. This process, known as synaptic transmission, is fundamental to all nervous system functions.

The Synaptic Process

How does synaptic transmission work? The basic steps include:

An action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal
Voltage-gated calcium channels open, allowing calcium to enter the neuron
Calcium triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell
The postsynaptic cell may be excited or inhibited, depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor types involved

Neurotransmitters: Chemical Messengers

Neurotransmitters are the chemical signals that carry information across synapses. Some common neurotransmitters include:

Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): The main inhibitory neurotransmitter
Dopamine: Involved in reward, motivation, and motor control
Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite
Acetylcholine: Important for memory, attention, and muscle activation

Spinal Cord Function and Organization

The spinal cord plays a crucial role in the central nervous system, serving as both a conduit for information and a center for reflex coordination. Understanding its structure and function is essential for comprehending how the body responds to stimuli and executes commands.

Anatomical Structure

The spinal cord is organized into segments, each corresponding to a pair of spinal nerves that exit the vertebral column. These segments are grouped into four main regions:

Cervical (8 segments): Controls the neck, arms, and hands
Thoracic (12 segments): Innervates the trunk and abdominal muscles
Lumbar (5 segments): Controls the legs and lower body
Sacral (5 segments): Regulates bowel, bladder, and sexual functions

White and Gray Matter

The spinal cord’s cross-section reveals two distinct areas:

White matter: Composed of myelinated axons that form ascending and descending tracts
Gray matter: Contains neuronal cell bodies and is organized into functional regions called laminae

Spinal Reflexes

One of the spinal cord’s critical functions is the coordination of reflexes, which are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli. How do spinal reflexes work? The basic reflex arc involves:

A sensory receptor detects a stimulus
The sensory neuron transmits the information to the spinal cord
Interneurons in the spinal cord process the signal
Motor neurons carry commands to effector muscles or glands
The body responds to the stimulus without direct input from the brain

This reflex mechanism allows for rapid responses to potentially harmful stimuli, such as quickly withdrawing your hand from a hot surface before the sensation of pain reaches your brain.

Disorders and Injuries of the Central Nervous System

The complexity and importance of the central nervous system make it vulnerable to a wide range of disorders and injuries. Understanding these conditions is crucial for developing effective treatments and rehabilitation strategies.

Neurodegenerative Diseases

These progressive disorders result in the loss of neuronal structure and function. Some common neurodegenerative diseases include:

Alzheimer’s disease: Characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline
Parkinson’s disease: Affects movement and coordination
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Causes progressive muscle weakness and paralysis
Multiple Sclerosis: An autoimmune disorder that damages the myelin sheath

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

TBI occurs when an external force damages the brain. It can result in a wide range of symptoms, from mild concussion to severe cognitive and physical impairments.

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)

SCI can lead to partial or complete loss of motor and sensory function below the level of injury. The severity and location of the injury determine the extent of impairment.

Stroke

A stroke occurs when blood flow to part of the brain is interrupted, either by a clot (ischemic stroke) or a ruptured blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke). This can lead to neuronal death and various neurological deficits.

What makes CNS disorders particularly challenging to treat? Several factors contribute to the complexity of treating CNS disorders:

Limited regenerative capacity of CNS neurons
The blood-brain barrier, which restricts the entry of many therapeutic agents
The intricate network of neural connections, making targeted interventions difficult
The potential for widespread effects due to the interconnected nature of the CNS

Current Research and Future Directions in CNS Science

As our understanding of the central nervous system continues to grow, researchers are exploring innovative approaches to treat CNS disorders and injuries. Some promising areas of research include:

Stem Cell Therapy

Stem cells hold potential for replacing damaged neurons and supporting cells in the CNS. How might stem cells be used to treat CNS disorders? Potential applications include:

Replacing lost neurons in neurodegenerative diseases
Promoting regeneration after spinal cord injury
Supporting the survival of existing neurons in conditions like ALS

Neuroprosthetics and Brain-Computer Interfaces

These technologies aim to restore or enhance neurological function by interfacing directly with the nervous system. Applications range from prosthetic limbs controlled by thought to devices that can bypass damaged areas of the spinal cord to restore movement.

Gene Therapy

Genetic approaches offer the potential to correct or mitigate the effects of mutations associated with neurological disorders. This could involve introducing functional genes or using gene-editing techniques like CRISPR to modify faulty genes.

Neuroplasticity-based Therapies

Leveraging the brain’s ability to reorganize itself, these therapies aim to promote functional recovery through targeted training and stimulation. This approach has shown promise in stroke rehabilitation and other neurological conditions.

Immunomodulation

Manipulating the immune response in the CNS could help reduce inflammation and promote repair in conditions like multiple sclerosis and after traumatic injuries.

What challenges must be overcome to advance CNS treatments? Key hurdles include:

Developing methods to deliver therapeutics across the blood-brain barrier
Improving the precision and safety of genetic and cellular therapies
Enhancing our understanding of the complex interactions within the CNS
Addressing ethical considerations surrounding brain-computer interfaces and genetic manipulation

As research progresses, these innovative approaches hold the promise of transforming the treatment of CNS disorders and injuries, offering hope to millions of people affected by neurological conditions worldwide.

How the spinal cord works

What is the central nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement. Like a central computer, it interprets information from our eyes (sight), ears (sound), nose (smell), tongue (taste), and skin (touch), as well as from internal organs such as the stomach.

The spinal cord is the highway for communication between the body and the brain. When the spinal cord is injured, the exchange of information between the brain and other parts of the body is disrupted.

How does the central nervous system differ from other systems of the body?

Most systems and organs of the body control just one function, but the central nervous system does many jobs at the same time. It controls all voluntary movement, such as speech and walking, and involuntary movements, such as blinking and breathing. It is also the core of our thoughts, perceptions, and emotions.

How does the central nervous system protect itself from injury?

The central nervous system is better protected than any other system or organ in the body. Its main line of defense is the bones of the skull and spinal column, which create a hard physical barrier to injury. A fluid-filled space below the bones, called the syrnix, provides shock absorbance.

Unfortunately, this protection can be a double-edged sword. When an injury to the central nervous system occurs, the soft tissue of the brain and spinal cord swells, causing pressure because of the confined space. The swelling makes the injury worse unless it is rapidly relieved. Fractured bones can lead to further damage and the possibility of infection.

Why can’t the central nervous system repair itself after injury?

Many organs and tissues in the body can recover after injury without intervention. Unfortunately, some cells of the central nervous system are so specialized that they cannot divide and create new cells. As a result, recovery from a brain or spinal cord injury is much more difficult.

The complexity of the central nervous system makes the formation of the right connections between brain and spinal cord cells very difficult. It is a huge challenge for scientists to recreate the central nervous system that existed before the injury.

Cells of the central nervous system

Neurons connect with one another to send and receive messages in the brain and spinal cord. Many neurons working together are responsible for every decision made, every emotion or sensation felt, and every action taken.

The complexity of the central nervous system is amazing: there are approximately 100 billion neurons in the brain and spinal cord combined. As many as 10,000 different subtypes of neurons have been identified, each specialized to send and receive certain types of information. Each neuron is made up of a cell body, which houses the nucleus. Axons and dendrites form extensions from the cell body.

Astrocytes, a kind of glial cell, are the primary support cells of the brain and spinal cord. They make and secrete proteins called neurotrophic factors. They also break down and remove proteins or chemicals that might be harmful to neurons (for example, glutamate, a neurotransmitter that in excess causes cells to become overexcited and die by a process called excitotoxicity).

Astrocytes aren’t always beneficial: after injury, they divide to make new cells that surround the injury site, forming a glial scar that is a barrier to regenerating axons.

Microglia are immune cells for the brain. After injury, they migrate to the site of injury to help clear away dead and dying cells. They can also produce small molecules called cytokines that trigger cells of the immune system to respond to the injury site. This clean-up process is likely to play an important role in recovery of function following a spinal injury.

Oligodendrocytes are glial cells that produce a fatty substance called myelin which wraps around axons in layers. Axon fibers insulated by myelin can carry electrical messages (also called action potentials) at a speed of 100 meters per second, while fibers without myelin can only carry messages at a speed of one meter per second.

Synapses and neurotransmission

Messages are passed from neuron to neuron through synapses, small gaps between the cells, with the help of chemicals called neurotransmitters. To transmit an action potential message across a synapse, neurotransmitter molecules are released from one neuron (the “pre-synaptic” neuron) across the gap to the next neuron (the “post-synaptic” neuron). The process continues until the message reaches its destination.

There are millions and millions of connections between neurons within the spinal cord alone. These connections are made during development, using positive (neurotrophic factors) and negative (inhibitory proteins) signals to fine-tune them. Amazingly, a single axon can form synapses with as many as 1,000 other neurons.

What causes paralysis?

There is a logical and physical topographical organization to the anatomy of the central nervous system, which is an elaborate web of closely connected neural pathways. This ordered relationship means that different segmental levels of the cord control different things, and injury to a particular part of the cord will have an impact on neighboring parts of the body.

Paralysis occurs when communication between the brain and spinal cord fails. This can result from injury to neurons in the brain (a stroke), or in the spinal cord. Trauma to the spinal cord affects only the areas below the level of injury. However, poliomyelitis (a viral infection) or Lou Gehrig’s disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS) can affect neurons in the entire spinal cord.

The information pathways

Specialized neurons carry messages from the skin, muscles, joints, and internal organs to the spinal cord about pain, temperature, touch, vibration, and proprioception. These messages are then relayed to the brain along one of two pathways: the spinothalmic tract and the lemniscal pathway. These pathways are in different locations in the spinal cord, so an injury might not affect them in the same way or to the same degree.

Each segment of the spinal cord receives sensory input from a particular region of the body. Scientists have mapped these areas and determined the “receptive” fields for each level of the spinal cord. Neighboring fields overlap each other, so the lines on the diagram are approximate.

Voluntary and involuntary movement

Over one million axons travel through the spinal cord, including the longest axons in the central nervous system.

Neurons in the motor cortex, the region of the brain that controls voluntary movement, send their axons through the corticospinal tract to connect with motor neurons in the spinal cord. The spinal motor neurons project out of the cord to the correct muscles via the ventral root. These connections control conscious movements, such as writing and running.

Information also flows in the opposite direction resulting in involuntary movement. Sensory neurons provide feedback to the brain via the dorsal root. Some of this sensory information is conveyed directly to lower motor neurons before it reaches the brain, resulting in involuntary, or reflex movements. The remaining sensory information travels back to the cortex.

How the spinal cord and muscles work together

The spinal cord is divided into five sections: the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. The level of injury determines the extent of paralysis and/or loss of sensation. No two injuries are alike.

This diagram illustrates the connections between the major skeletal muscle groups and each level of the spinal cord. A similar organization exists for the spinal control of the internal organs.

How the spinal cord and internal organs work together

In addition to the control of voluntary movement, the central nervous system contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways that control the “fight or flight” response to danger and regulation of bodily functions. These include hormone release, movement of food through the stomach and intestines, and the sensations from and muscular control to all internal organs.

This diagram illustrates these pathways and the level of the spinal cord projecting to each organ.

What happens following a spinal cord injury?

A common set of biological events take place following spinal cord injury:

Cells from the immune system migrate to the injury site, causing additional damage to some neurons and death to others that survived the initial trauma.

The death of oligodendrocytes causes axons to lose their myelination, which greatly impairs the conduction of action potential, messages, or renders the remaining connections useless. The neuronal information highway is further disrupted because many axons are severed, cutting off the lines of communication between the brain and muscles and between the body’s sensory systems and the brain.

Within several weeks of the initial injury, the area of tissue damage has been cleared away by microglia, and a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by a glial scar is left behind. Molecules that inhibit regrowth of severed axons are now expressed at this site. The cavitation is called a syrinx, which acts as a barrier to the reconnection of the two sides of the damaged spinal cord.

Although spinal cord injury causes complex damage, a surprising amount of the basic circuitry to control movement and process information can remain intact. This is because the spinal cord is arranged in layers of circuitry. Many of the connections and neuronal cell bodies forming this circuitry above and below the site of injury survive the trauma. An important question to research scientists is, how much do these surviving neurons “know?” Can they regenerate and make new, correct connections?

Intervention strategies

Research points to a multiplicity of possible interventions to promote recovery from a spinal injury. Some would be delivered immediately following the injury; others are less time-specific and involve rebuilding and reconnecting the injured cord. Clearly, both approaches are important: limiting degeneration will enhance the probability of greater recovery, while stimulating regeneration will build upon the remaining system to restore lost connectivity and perhaps to prevent further degeneration.

The following are some of the intervention strategies supported by funding from the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation. This is not a comprehensive list of all possible interventions.

Treatments immediately following an accident:

Limiting initial degeneration

Recent research has shown that there are at least three different mechanisms of cell death at play in neuronal and oligodendrocyte loss after injury: necrosis, excitotoxicity, and apoptosis.

Treating inflammation

Soon after injury, the spinal cord swells and proteins from the immune system invade the injured zone. This swelling and inflammation may foster secondary damage to the cord after the initial injury. So it is important to treat the inflammatory response as quickly as possible. Labs pursuing this approach include the Schwab Lab.

Longer-term treatments:

Stimulating axonal growth

Nerve fertilizers called neurotrophins can promote cell survival by blocking apoptosis and stimulate axonal growth. Each neurotrophin has a very specific target cell function. Some selectively prevent oligodendrocyte cell death, others promote axon regrowth or neuron survival, and still others serve multiple functions. Labs pursuing this approach include the Black Lab and the Parada Lab.

Promoting new growth through substrate or guidance molecules

Substrate and guidance molecules may improve targeting once axons have been encouraged to regenerate past the lesion site. These proteins act as roadmaps, steering axons to their correct targets. This is a critical function because even if axons do survive, they must reconnect with the correct targets. Labs pursuing this approach include the Black Lab, the Mendell Lab, and the Parada Lab.

Blocking molecules that inhibit regeneration

There are molecules within the brain and spinal cord that prevent neurons from dividing and axons from growing. Overcoming inhibition can stimulate axonal regrowth and regeneration and is likely to be an important component of regenerative therapies. The Schwab Lab is pursuing this approach.

Supplying new cells to replace lost ones

Stem cells, which are isolated from the CNS and can divide to form new cells, may replace lost neurons and gila. These stem cells must be harvested, treated to encourage growth, and then injected into the injured cord. Labs pursuing such an approach include the Bunge Lab and the Gage Lab.

Building bridges to span the lesion cavity

Bridges may be needed to reconnect the severed sections of the injured spinal cord. Scientists must determine how best to build these bridges and what molecules to use to encourage new growth and enhance survival of new connections. The Bunge Lab is pursuing this approach.

Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord – Queensland Brain Institute

Our bodies couldn’t operate without the nervous system – the complex network that coordinates our actions, reflexes, and sensations. Broadly speaking, the nervous system is organised into two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS is the processing centre of the body and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Both of these are protected by three layers of membranes known as meninges. For further protection, the brain is encased within the hard bones of the skull, while the spinal cord is protected with the bony vertebrae of our backbones. A third form of protection is cerebrospinal fluid, which provides a buffer that limits impact between the brain and skull or between spinal cord and vertebrae.

Grey and white matter

In terms of tissue, the CNS is divided into grey matter and white matter. Grey matter comprises neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, glial cells, and capillaries. Because of the abundant blood supply of this tissue, it’s actually more pink-coloured than grey.

In the brain, grey matter is mainly found in the outer layers, while in the spinal cord it forms the core ‘butterfly’ shape.

White matter refers to the areas of the CNS which host the majority of axons, the long cords that extend from neurons. Most axons are coated in myelin – a white, fatty insulating cover that helps nerve signals travel quickly and reliably. In the brain, white matter is buried under the grey surface, carrying signals across different parts of the brain. In the spinal cord, white matter is the external layer surrounding the grey core.

The brain

^{Image: QBI/Levent Efe}

If the CNS is the processing centre of the human body, the brain is its headquarters. It is broadly organised into three main regions – the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The largest of these three is the forebrain (derived from the prosencephalon in the developing brain). It contains the large outermost layer of the brain, the wrinkly cerebral cortex, and smaller structures towards its centre, such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pineal gland.

The midbrain (derived from the mesencephalon in the developing brain) serves as the vital connection point between the forebrain and the hindbrain. It’s the top part of the brainstem, which connects the brain to the spinal cord.

The hindbrain (derived from the rhombencephalon in the developing brain) is the lowest back portion of the brain, containing the rest of the brainstem made up of medulla oblongata and the pons, and also the cerebellum – a small ball of dense brain tissue nestled right against the back of the brainstem.

Parts of the brain

The brain’s cerebral cortex is the outermost layer that gives the brain its characteristic wrinkly appearance. The cerebral cortex is divided lengthways into two cerebral hemispheres, each of which traditionally have been divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Read more.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Structure and Function

Biological Psychology
Neuroscience
CNS

Definition, Structure and Function

By Olivia Guy-Evans, published March 11, 2021

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Our brains have two primary functions, which are to control behavior and to regulate the body’s physiological processes. However, the brain cannot do this alone as it needs to receive information from the body’s sense receptors, which it achieves through communication with the spinal cord.

The CNS is named ‘central’ because aside from occupying the central position of the body, the CNS is also the most important part of the nervous system for maintaining and producing behavior.

Structure of the CNS

The central nervous system has three main components which are the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerve cells:

Brain

The brain is responsible for functions such as though, forming memories, movement, and awareness. There are three major parts to the human brain: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

The Brain Stem

The brain stem is located at the base of the brain and is one of the most primitive regions of the brain, and is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

The brain stem functions are correspondingly basic and physiological, including automatic behaviors such as breathing and swallowing.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is situated just above the brain stem, which monitors and regulates motor behavior, particularly automatic movements, and balance. The brains of some animals, such as amphibians consist primarily of a brain stem and a cerebellum.

The Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the most recently developed in the human brains and is the largest part of the brain (which makes up about 85% of the total mass).

The cerebrum is split into two cerebral hemispheres that work together to produce various functions such as voluntary behaviors, speech, cognitive thinking, and awareness.

The left hemisphere is responsible for controlling the movements on the right side of the body, whereas the right hemisphere is responsible for controlling the movements on the left side of the body.

Within the cerebral hemispheres, there are four areas, or lobes, that each serve different functions:

Frontal lobes – these are positioned at the forefront of the brain and are responsible for higher cognitive functioning, language development, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving.
Occipital lobes – positioned at the back of the brain, these lobes are responsible for processing and encoding different visual information such as color, orientation, and motion.
Parietal lobes – situated at the top of the brain, these are responsible for processing sensory information, attentional awareness, visuospatial processing and integrating somatosensory information (e. g. touch, temperature and pain).
Temporal lobes – located just behind the ears, the temporal lobes are responsible for recognition, perception (hearing, vision, smell), understanding language, and the formation of memories.

The surface of the cerebrum is covered by the cerebral cortex, often referred to as grey matter. Grey matter consists of a thin layer of tissue, approximately 3mm thick, containing billions of neurons. The grey matter is the structure whereby memories are stored, perceptions take place and information is processed.

The neurons in the grey matter are connected to other parts of the brain by a layer of nerve fibers called white matter, named so because of the shiny white appearance of the substance that insulates it.

Grey matter is distinctively wrinkled in appearance – it is full of bulges separated by grooves. A bulge in the brain is called a gyrus, or gyri when plural. The grooves in the brain are called fissures. The fissures and gyri expand the amount of surface area there is in the cerebral cortex, ultimately increasing the number of neurons it can contain.

Animals with the largest and higher functioning brains such as humans and some primates have the most wrinkled brains, and thus, the largest cerebral cortices.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin collection of neurons attached to the base of the brain (brain stem), running the length of the spinal column. The spinal cord contains circuits of neurons which can control some of our simple reflexes such as moving a hand away from a hot surface, without participation from the brain.

The CNS communicates with the rest of the body through the nerves, which are bundles of fibers which transmit signals to and from the CNS. The nerves which are attached to the spinal cord make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The nerve roots exit the spinal cord and travel to both sides of the body, carrying messages back and forth between the brain and the peripheral nerves.

The middle structure of the spinal cord is made up of grey matter, and the external tissues are made of white matter. Within the spinal cord, there are 30 segments, each belonging to one of four sections:

Cervical – These are 8 segments which transmit signals from or to areas of the head, neck, shoulders, arms and hands.
Thoracic – These are 12 segments which transmit signals from or to areas of the arms, chest and abdominal areas.
Lumbar – These are 5 segments which transmit signals from or to areas of the legs, feet and some pelvic organs.
Sacral – These are 5 segments which transmit signals from or to areas of the lower back, pelvic organs, genital areas and some areas of the legs and feet.
Coccyx – which is the base of the spinal cord.

Cells

For messages to be transmitted throughout the CNS and the body, there are billions of cells which help in the functioning of the brain and spinal cord.

Neurons, or nerve cells, connect with each other in order to send and receive messages in the brain and spinal cord. Neurons work together to transmit sensory information to the brain and are responsible for making decisions, emotions, and muscle activity.

There are approximately 86 billion neurons in the CNS with thousands of different subtypes identified which serve different functions. Each neuron is made up of a cell body (soma), axons, and dendrites.

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the CNS which do not themselves transmit messages but protect and support the neurons. Glia cells account for around 90% of the overall cells in the CNS. There are three types of glia cells in the CNS: astrocytes, microglial, and oligodendrocytes.

Astrocytes are the main support cells of the CNS which make and secrete proteins called neurotrophic factors (which support growth and survival of neurons). These types of cells also help in removing harmful proteins and chemicals that may damage neurons.

Microglia cells are responsible for removing damaged neurons and infections and are important for maintaining the health of the CNS. They also produce molecules called cytokines which regulate the cell’s immunity in response to injury.

Oligodendrocytes are responsible for producing a fatty substance called myelin, which is used as insulation which wraps around the axons of neurons. Myelin is essential for neurons to carry electrical messages at a much faster speed than neurons who are not insulated by myelin.

Protective structures

As the central nervous system is vital for a variety of functions as well as surviving, it is exceptionally well protected. The brain is encased by a skull, and the spinal cord runs through the middle of a column of hollow bones known as vertebrae.

As well as this, the brain and the spinal cord are also protected by a three-layered set of membranes called the meninges (the layers specifically called pia mater, arachnoid and dura mater).

To ensure the brain and the spinal cord do not come into direct contact with any bones of the skull or vertebrae, they float in a clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid.

The cerebrospinal fluid fills the space between two of the meninges, as well as circulating within the ventricles of the CNS, providing a surrounding cushion to the brain and spinal cord, protecting them from damage.

About the Author

Olivia Guy-Evans obtained her undergraduate degree in Educational Psychology at Edge Hill University in 2015. She then received her master’s degree in Psychology of Education from the University of Bristol in 2019. Olivia has been working as a support worker for adults with learning disabilities in Bristol for the last four years.

How to reference this article:

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, March 11).
Central nervous system: definition, structure and function. Simply Psychology. https://www. simplypsychology.org/central-nervous-system.html

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Overview of Nervous System Disorders

What is the nervous system?

The nervous system is a complex, sophisticated system that regulates and coordinates body activities. It is made up of two major divisions, including the following:

Central nervous system. This consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system. This consists of all other neural elements, including the peripheral nerves and the autonomic nerves.

In addition to the brain and spinal cord, principal organs of the nervous system include the following:

Eyes
Ears
Sensory organs of taste
Sensory organs of smell
Sensory receptors located in the skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body

What are some disorders of the nervous system?

The nervous system is vulnerable to various disorders. It can be damaged by the following:

Trauma
Infections
Degeneration
Structural defects
Tumors
Blood flow disruption
Autoimmune disorders

Disorders of the nervous system

Disorders of the nervous system may involve the following:

Vascular disorders, such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage and hematoma, and extradural hemorrhage
Infections, such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess
Structural disorders, such as brain or spinal cord injury, Bell’s palsy, cervical spondylosis, carpal tunnel syndrome, brain or spinal cord tumors, peripheral neuropathy, and Guillain-Barré syndrome
Functional disorders, such as headache, epilepsy, dizziness, and neuralgia
Degeneration, such as Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington chorea, and Alzheimer disease

Signs and symptoms of nervous system disorders

The following are the most common general signs and symptoms of a nervous system disorder. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

Persistent or sudden onset of a headache
A headache that changes or is different
Loss of feeling or tingling
Weakness or loss of muscle strength
Loss of sight or double vision
Memory loss
Impaired mental ability
Lack of coordination
Muscle rigidity
Tremors and seizures
Back pain which radiates to the feet, toes, or other parts of the body
Muscle wasting and slurred speech
New language impairment (expression or comprehension)

The symptoms of a nervous system disorder may look like other medical conditions or problems. Always see your healthcare provider for a diagnosis.

Healthcare providers who treat nervous system disorders

The best way to manage nervous system disorders is with the help of a team of healthcare providers. You may not need all members of the team at any given time. But it’s good to know who they are and how they can help. Here is a list of some of the healthcare providers that may be involved in treating nervous system disorders:

Neurologist. The medical healthcare providers who diagnose and treat nervous system disorders are called neurologists. Some neurologists treat acute strokes and cerebral aneurysms using endovascular techniques.
Neurosurgeon. Surgeons who operate as a treatment team for nervous system disorders are called neurological surgeons or neurosurgeons.
Neuroradiologist and interventional radiologist. This is a radiologist who specializes in diagnosing nervous system conditions using imaging and in treating nervous system conditions such as cerebral aneurysms, acute strokes, and vertebral fractures. This provider also does biopsies of certain tumors.
Psychologist. Emotional problems such as anxiety, depression, mood swings, and irritability are common in nervous system disorders. Your psychologist can help. Psychologists may do testing to find out how much your disorder is affecting the way you think and feel. Psychologists also do talk therapy (counseling) to help you deal with the emotional effects caused by nervous system disorders.
Psychiatrist. Like your psychologist, this team member deals with emotional and behavior symptoms caused by nervous system disorders. In most cases, talk therapy works best for these problems. But if you need medicines to treat symptoms such as depression or anxiety, this doctor can help.
Physiatrist. Healthcare providers who work with people in the rehab (rehabilitation) process are called physiatrists.
Physical therapist. This is a movement specialist who can help you move and walk well. In physical therapy, you can also work on painful or stiff muscles and joints.
Occupational therapist. This provider helps you learn to handle your day-to-day activities. For example, you might have trouble doing tasks you need to do at work or at home. Your occupational therapist will help you find ways to adjust to any changes in your physical abilities.
Speech/language pathologist. This provider specializes in communication, including cognitive communication. They also diagnose and treat swallowing problems.

Central nervous system (CNS) | healthdirect

What is the central nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is one of 2 parts of the nervous system. The other part is the peripheral nervous system, which consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

The central nervous system is the body’s processing centre. The brain controls most of the functions of the body, including awareness, movement, thinking, speech, and the 5 senses of seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It carries messages to and from the brain via the network of peripheral nerves connected to it.

Nerves also connect the spinal cord to a part of the brain called the brainstem.

What are the parts of the central nervous system?

The nervous system is made up of basic units called neurons. The neurons are arranged in networks that carry electrical or chemical messages to and from the brain.

The tissue of the central nervous system is made up of grey matter and white matter. Grey matter is made up of neurons, cells and blood vessels. White matter is made up of axons, which are long cords that extend from the neurons. They are coated in myelin, which is a fatty insulation.

The brain and spinal cord are protected from damage by a clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid, 3 layers of membranes called the meninges, and the hard bones of the skull and backbone.

The brain

The brain is made up of different parts. These include the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the brainstem.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls intelligence, memory, personality, emotion, speech, and ability to feel and move. It is divided into left and right hemispheres, linked by a band of nerve fibres in the centre of the brain called the corpus callosum.

Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes, or sections, which are all connected.

The frontal lobes control movement, speech and some of the functions of the mind like behaviour, mood, memory and organisation.
The temporal lobes play an important part in memory, hearing, speech and language.
The parietal lobes play an important part in taste, touch, temperature and pain, and also in the understanding of numbers, awareness of the body and feeling of space.
The occipital lobes are vital for being able to see clearly.

Deep inside the brain are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus moves information to and from the lobes, and controls movements and memory. The hypothalamus controls appetite, thirst and body temperature, and produces hormones that control the release of other hormones in the pituitary gland.

At the base of the brain is the brainstem. It is important for breathing, blood pressure and how the body reacts to danger.

Central Nervous System Tumors (Brain and Spinal Cord) – Childhood: Introduction

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some basic information about this disease and the parts of the body it may affect. This is the first page of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Childhood Central Nervous System Tumors (Brain and Spinal Cord). Use the menu to see other pages. Think of that menu as a roadmap for this complete guide.

About the body’s central nervous system

The body’s central nervous system (CNS) consists of the spinal cord and the brain.

The spinal cord consists of nerves that carry information back and forth between the body and the brain. The brain is the center of thought, memory, and emotion. It controls the 5 senses, which include smell, touch, taste, hearing, and sight. It also controls movement and other basic functions of the body, including heartbeat, circulation, and breathing.

The brain is made up of 4 major parts:

The cerebrum. This is the largest part of the brain. It contains 2 cerebral hemispheres and is divided into 4 lobes where specific functions occur.

The frontal lobe controls reasoning, emotions, problem solving, and parts of speech and movement
The parietal lobe controls the sensations of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
The temporal lobe controls memory and the sense of hearing
The occipital lobe controls vision

The cerebellum. Also called the “little brain,” the cerebellum is located underneath the cerebrum. It controls coordination and balance.
The brain stem. This is the lowest portion of the brain and connects to the spinal cord. It controls involuntary functions essential for life, such as a person’s heartbeat and breathing.
The meninges. These are the membranes that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord. There are 3 meningeal layers, called the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia arachnoid.

When a tumor begins in the CNS

A CNS tumor begins when healthy cells within the brain or the spinal cord change and grow out of control, forming a mass. A CNS tumor can be either cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread.

A CNS tumor is especially problematic because a person’s thought processes and movements may be affected. And, the tissues around the tumor are often vital to the body’s functioning. The treatment of a CNS tumor in infants and young children may be especially challenging because a child’s brain is still developing. Doctors consider all these factors in creating the best treatment plan for each child with a CNS tumor.

Types of CNS tumors in children

In most instances, CNS tumors start in the normal cells of the brain and spinal cord called “neurons” and “glia.” Tumors that start from neurons include medulloblastoma and primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs). Tumors that start from glia include glioma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, and ependymoma. The tumor’s specific name often reflects the CNS tumor’s tissue of origin.

In addition to the tumor’s name, CNS tumors are described by grade. This means that each tumor is given a grade on a scale of I to IV (1 to 4). The tumor’s grade reflects whether the tumor is likely to behave aggressively and whether it is likely to spread to other parts of the brain and spine. Grading is described later in this guide in more detail. There are also specific factors within each tumor type that affect how quickly the tumor will grow. Many of these differences depend on genetic changes found within the tumor (see Diagnosis).

The following types of CNS tumors are most common among children:

This guide covers CNS tumors diagnosed in children and adolescents. Learn more about brain tumors in adults in a separate guide on this website.

Looking for More of an Introduction?

If you would like more of an introduction, explore these related items. Please note that these links will take you to other sections on Cancer.Net:

The next section in this guide is Statistics. It helps explain the number of children and adolescents who are diagnosed with a CNS tumor and general survival rates. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Central Nervous System – an overview

25.1 Introduction

Central nervous system (CNS) development is a tightly regulated process governed by multiple interdependent regulatory cascades. This process spans from the generation of many distinct neural subtypes from precursor cells, denoted neuroblasts (NBs) in insects, at the appropriate positions and timepoints, and their subsequent integration into functional networks, through synapse formation, refinement, and neurotransmitter/neuropeptide expression. These cascades are orchestrated with extraordinary precision, and the resulting neuronal networks that control information processing in the CNS are highly ordered. Therefore, the understanding of CNS development is eventually an understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying this precision in the cell generation, specification, and integration. The human brain is estimated to contain some 100 billion neurons, each of which forms, on average, 1000–10,000 synaptic contacts (Muotri and Gage, 2006). In addition, neurons are not equivalent, and there is an estimated 10,000 different cell types in the human CNS (Muotri and Gage, 2006). Undeniably, this makes the human brain the most sophisticated and complex “device” on earth. Fortunately, there are less complex models available, which have been extremely valuable for our understanding of how CNS complexity emerges during development. It is becoming increasingly clear that most developmental mechanisms are highly conserved across the animal kingdom, and findings in less complex models have been crucial for elucidating the molecular and genetic mechanisms that control nervous system development in higher animals. Important progress in this field during the last three decades has stemmed from the study of the Drosophila melanogaster (Drosophila) CNS. The relative simplicity of the Drosophila CNS, combined with the powerful techniques for genetic analysis developed in Drosophila, has made it an invaluable experimental system in developmental neurobiology (Skeath and Thor, 2003; Allan and Thor, 2015). In this review we will focus on advances in our understanding of Drosophila embryonic CNS development.

Perinatal lesions of the central nervous system at the Central Clinical Hospital of the Russian Academy of Sciences

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Clinical manifestations of PN CNS

Syndrome of excitability of the nervous system: excessive and multiple movements, tremor of the chin, tongue, limbs, regurgitation, sleep disturbances (excessive wakefulness), spontaneous Moro reflex (throwing out the arms in the supine position)
Syndrome of depression of the nervous system: decreased spontaneous motor activity, short-term wakefulness, excessive sleep, weakness of the sucking reflex, insufficient emotional response when interacting with a child.
Autonomic-visceral dysfunction syndrome: thermoregulation disorders, transient cyanosis, impaired heart rate and respiratory rhythm, marbling of the skin, hypothermia of the extremities, vegetative-vascular spots on the skin, regurgitation, vomiting, unstable stools.
Syndrome of intracranial hypertension, hydrocephalic syndrome: excessive increase in head circumference, bulging fontanelle, tilting the head back, loud monotonous crying (cerebral cry), tilting the head back up to arching the trunk (opistotonus), persistent vomiting and regurgitation not associated with food intake, sensitivity to sound stimuli (hyperesthesia), spontaneous bulging of the eyes (Graefe syndrome), difficulty falling asleep (wants to sleep, but cannot fall asleep), short-term and superficial sleep, excitability.
Convulsive syndrome: various sudden and repetitive contractions of the eyelids, facial muscles, eye abduction, paroxysmal chewing, swallowing, sucking, protruding tongue, swimming arm movements, pedaling, tonic tension of the trunk or limbs, single or group twitching of the limb muscles, accompanied by convulsive movements eyes or “stop” gaze, apnea.
Dysregulation of muscle tone (muscular dystonia) increased, decreased, mixed muscle tone in the limbs, range of motion in the joints, spontaneous posture in sleep and wakefulness, position of the hands and feet, support during verticalization, head position during traction (pulling) by the handles …

Outcomes and consequences of PN CNS

The consequences of PN of the central nervous system can be determined by the age of 1 year. Below are their main manifestations:

Violation of motor development: a delay in the acquisition of the skills of holding the head, turning over, sitting, crawling, standing up, independent walking in relation to the physical age of the child.
Formation of paresis and paralysis of both one and several limbs (monoplegia, diplegia, hemiparesis, tetraparesis), which refer to various forms of cerebral palsy.
Violation of psycho-speech development: delay in acquiring the skill of humming, babbling, the first words and phrases, the quality of the sounds pronounced, the timing of the formation of the tweezers and the pointing gesture, understanding of the addressed speech, interest in surrounding objects and their intended use, the nature of the game, memorization of a new one information, concentration of attention with the formation of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Violation of behavior and emotions: the timing of the formation of a complex of revitalization, differentiation of relatives and strangers, emotional resonance, the degree of expression of emotions, communication with peers and adults, the possibility of playing together, the formation of neatness skills, possibly leading to autism spectrum disorders.
Hydrocephalus: excessive increase in head circumference, head deformity, severity of saphenous veins in the temporal regions, signs of hypertensive and hydrocephalic syndromes.
Paroxysmal states of non-epileptic genesis: affective-respiratory seizures, benign myoclonus of infancy (Figerman syndrome), benign neonatal sleep myoclonus, Sandiffer syndrome, infant torticolis, restless sleep, night fears, rhythmic movements in a dream, swinging fingers, swinging gnashing of teeth).
Age-related epileptic syndromes: early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (Otahar syndrome), early myoclonic encephalopathy, Dravet syndrome, West syndrome, benign neonatal epileptic syndromes, benign myoclonic epilepsy of infancy, benign partial epilepsy of infancy.

Instrumental diagnostics

In the CDC Research Institute of Pediatrics and Rehabilitation, instrumental diagnostics are carried out in order to clarify the diagnosis:

Ultrasound of the brain (neurosonography)
EEG of daytime sleep and wakefulness
CT scan of the brain
MRI of the brain and spine

Our help

Specialists of the Department of Development Neurobiology of the Research Institute of Pediatrics and Health Protection of the Central Clinical Hospital of the Russian Academy of Sciences work on the basis of the CDC:

Diagnostics, observation and treatment are carried out by experienced neurologists, candidates of medical sciences with 20 years of experience in this problem.Our specialists are the authors of the book “Modern Neurobiological Aspects of Perinatal CNS Lesions”, published by the publishing house of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Defectologists and clinical psychologists are involved in the diagnosis, who help to clarify the presence of developmental disorders. Development assessment is carried out according to unified development tables.
If necessary, children can receive specialized treatment and correction, developmental classes with specialists in early development, aimed at stimulating sensory, visual, auditory, tactile, coordinating functions.
There is a possibility of complex observation of children with perinatal CNS lesions with the involvement of qualified specialists, candidates of medical sciences.
Accompanying an experienced pediatrician who will answer all questions about care, nutrition, prevention of rickets and ARVI, hardening.
Vaccine prophylaxis department: consultation of a vaccinologist-immunologist in order to draw up an individual vaccination schedule and direct vaccination under his control.
Involvement of any other pediatric specialists, including orthopedists and ophthalmologists.

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Diseases of the Nervous System / Diseases / Family Clinic A-Media

Neurology deals with the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases of the nervous system.Specialists in this field of medicine are neurologists, they are the ones who treat such common diseases of the nervous system as migraines, the consequences of a stroke, epilepsy, neuralgia and others. The nervous system is key to the functioning of the body, because it controls and regulates the functioning of all systems of the body, and is also responsible for thinking, emotions, sensation and movement.

Malfunctions in the functioning of any organ lead to a reaction from the nervous system. Therefore, it is important to differentiate the diseases of the nervous system themselves from its reaction to pathological processes in other organs of the body.

What is the danger of diseases of the nervous system

Diseases of the nervous system strongly affect the quality of human life and his working capacity. Regular fatigue, stress and unfavorable external factors often lead to the development of mild, but constant failures from the nervous system: chronic headaches, decreased mental performance, inhibited reactions, etc. Unfortunately, in such cases, instead of proper treatment, people often resort to over-the-counter pain relievers or various stimulants of the nervous system (tonics, caffeine and taurine drinks).This approach not only does not solve the problem, but also exacerbates it, since it simply masks the root cause of headaches and a decrease in mental performance.

It is dangerous to ignore even minor head injuries. For example, a concussion that is not cured in time is dangerous because later chronic headaches can develop. Also, one should not ignore the deterioration of thinking and memory in the elderly, attributing these manifestations to old age. Many forms of senile dementia are amenable to prevention and treatment with timely referral to a neurologist in the early stages of the disease.If we ignore age-related problems with the nervous system, then the disease can move to a stage when treatment is already ineffective or completely impossible.

In the event of malfunctions in the nervous system, you must consult a specialist, and not self-medicate. Only a neurologist will be able to correctly diagnose, prescribe adequate treatment and select safe drugs.

Classification

Based on the localization of the disease, diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system are distinguished.In the first case, we are talking about problems in the brain and spinal cord, in the second – in the nerves that run throughout the body. Depending on their nature, diseases of the nervous system are divided into:

traumatic
vascular
hereditary
infectious.

Symptoms

The following symptoms indicate a malfunction of the central nervous system:

weakening of sensitivity in any part of the body
pain in the head, neck, back and limbs
impaired coordination of movements, unsteadiness of gait
visual , gustatory, auditory and olfactory perception
nervous tic, cramps and convulsions
weakness in the muscles or a sharp increase in their tone
loss of consciousness
dizziness
mental disorders
insomnia
significant memory impairment

ears.

How we can help

The highly professional neurologists of the A-Media Family Clinic effectively treat a wide range of neurological diseases using effective diagnostic and therapeutic methods. When developing an individual treatment regimen for a particular patient, our clinic actively uses an integrated approach. To increase the effectiveness of the therapy of neurological diseases, in addition to the neurologist, specialists of related specialties can be involved.

Central nervous system injuries –

Central nervous system injuries

In most cases, which are common in our country, road traffic accidents occur with serious injuries and damage to the central nervous system.In many parts of the world, central nervous system injuries occur in children, adolescents and young people and in most cases are fatal or disabling. Accidents, a large proportion of which are caused by road traffic accidents, as well as falls, physical shock or other types of injury, can lead to serious injury to the brain, spinal cord, as well as their supporting systems and other structures of the body.

Head injuries

Scalped injury:

If left untreated, a traumatic brain injury to the head can cause bleeding and later lead to shock.Bleeding can usually be controlled with a dressing or clamps attached to the scalp. Cuts, cuts or stab injuries to the head should be closed as soon as possible. In the event of a penetrating fracture of the skull bones, the tears in the scalp tissue must be cleaned and treated in the operating room. Simple cuts on the scalp must be carefully cleaned and treated. If the wound has a small diameter, then closure or joining of its edges is performed.In the case of extensive injuries, the preferred method is the use of a microsurgical technique, thanks to which it is possible to suture the damaged area.

Injured scalp, if it loses its functionality, grafts can be used with which you can close the damaged intact layer of the patient’s periosteum. In such cases, the periosteum should be kept moist before the operation. In the absence of blood supply to the outer layer of the bone, its processing will be significantly difficult.Any cuts or scalped injuries should be assessed or supervised by a neurosurgeon.

Skull fractures

Skull fractures are classified into the following types: a fracture without damage to the skin (closed fracture), or in the case of tissue damage (open or compound fracture), a fracture in only one line (linear fracture), a fracture with multiple branches or lines of fractures (stellate fracture) , or a fragmentary (comminuted fracture) and / or fracture, in which the edges of the damaged segment are below the level of healthy bones (depressed) or the usual level (not depressed).

Simple fractures of the skull (linear, stellate or depressed in places) do not require special treatment. However, these damages to the vascular ducts or intracranial sinuses of the dura mater are potentially dangerous. In case of rupture of such channels, epidural or subdural hematoma may occur. Simple fractures of the skull in which the sinuses or mastoid processes, being in contact with air, reach the mastoid air cells, such fractures are called “open”.

For compression or depressed fractures, surgery may be required, mainly aimed at removing bone fragments. In the absence of any neurological signs during the operation, the dura mater should be examined and a planned operation to restore it should be performed.

Open skull fractures require surgical intervention. In case of linear or stellate, (not depressed) non-depressor-open fractures, the damaged area should be cleaned and closed after thorough cleaning.In the case of serious injuries to the lower bones with open fractures, a major operation with appropriate treatment should be performed. The dura mater should be examined in the most careful way. To prevent the risk of infection or leakage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a fascia graft should be placed on the affected area. After examining the dura mater and / or brain tissue, it is necessary to prepare and conduct craniotomy, during which the appropriate procedures for an open fracture will be performed.

Bruising (traumatic glasses) or an effect (bat ears) may occur at the base of the fracture. These clinical signs are observed more often with fractures of the anterior cranial and middle cranial fossa. In this type of fracture, isolated cranial nerve lesions located at the exit openings of the cranial nerves can be observed. Depending on the tear or edema, the facial nerve is most often affected in cranial fractures. Most lesions of the facial nerve heal on their own and do not require any treatment.On the other hand, if the facial nerve is completely damaged, serious surgical intervention is required.

In cases with rhinorrhea or nasal discharge of watery mucous secretions, treatment is necessary. Traumatic CMF discharge usually subsides within the first 7 to 10 days. Such treatment must necessarily be carried out in a neurosurgical clinic.

Penetrating brain injury (crush):

Penetrating herbs in the brain are formed as a result of slowing down, speeding up, rotating, or all of these actions at the same time in connection with the impact.During the first impact, neural and axonal breaks can form, which represent the primary damage. Complications that develop later, such as intracranial hematoma, cerebral edema, hypoxia, low blood pressure, hydrocephalus, or endocrine disorders, are secondary damage.

Primary brain injury usually does not accompany mild head trauma, and neurological deficits are limited primarily to temporary loss of consciousness (concussion).On the other hand, with moderate to severe injuries, typical reversible or irreversible neurological deficits can be observed. In addition, trauma of this degree is usually accompanied by secondary brain damage.

Shocks that result in primary damage can be so severe that they can rupture capillaries, superficial subdural veins, or epidural arteries and veins, and result in hematoma in the form of internal bleeding. As a result of vasodilation and disruption of the blood-brain barrier, cerebral edema can occur.Ischemia associated with low blood pressure or oxygen deprivation can lead to cell death and cytotoxic edema. Mixing BOS with blood can lead to malabsorption of BOS and hydrocephalus. The release of antidiuretic hormone or diabetes insipidius disrupts the balance of fluids and electrolytes, and cerebral edema may worsen even more. These changes, taken separately or combined, may result in an increase in ICP.

After a high ICP of cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) decreases, secondary brain injury may occur.Increased intercranial pressure is one of the most important factors affecting the prognosis of head injuries. Therefore, aggressive treatment must be performed to prevent secondary brain damage when cerebral perfusion pressure drops. If possible, early intervention should be performed at the scene of the accident by monitoring the airways and using hyperventilation.

Ambulance is the basis for the assessment of the victim’s condition. Despite the complexity of the overall neurological assessment of patients who do not respond and do not cooperate, some characteristics of patients are critically important.

Patients who do not have headache, lethargy, or focal neurologic deficits are less likely to develop a secondary complication as a result of a head injury. Imaging screening techniques are generally not performed for asemptomatic patients. In this case, in patients with or without focal neurological deficit, but who also have severity of symptoms, computed tomography (CT) should be performed.

Spinal cord injury

Traumatic injuries of the spinal cord, spinal fractures, dislocations with fractures, hyperextension in canals that were narrowed earlier, can be observed during intervertebral hernia disc material into the canal, with gunshot wounds or stab wounds.Neurological deficits can be mild and temporary, or they can be severe and permanent. With or without coma, any head injury or multitrauma should always be suspected of having a fracture or injury to the spine or spinal cord. If at first it is assumed that the spine is unstable, the patient should be placed on a flat surface until a detailed examination and diagnosis is carried out, in this case, a rigid stretcher with a neck fixation is best suited.

Clinical reports for injuries of the spine or spinal cord: sensitivity of the spine, loss of strength in the limbs, convulsions or paresthesia, respiratory failure and low blood pressure. If we are talking about the clamping of the nerve spinal endings, then in the corresponding myotome and dermatome, the loss of movement and sensitivity manifests itself in the form of a characteristic radiculopathy. When it comes to pinching the spinal cord, various symptoms associated with developing myelopathy may appear

Complete tissue damage is expressed as a complete loss of movement and sensitivity below the level of functional damage, this is a manifestation of a complete anatomical or physiological section.Areflexia, flaxity, loss of sensation, and autonomic paralysis appear below the level of damage to acute incisions. For all cuts above T5, there is a constant decrease in blood pressure, which develops in connection with the loss of sympathetic vascular tone.

Incomplete spinal cord injuries below the level of trauma, together with loss of ipsilateral motor function and coordination / vibration sensitivity, as well as loss of pain and temperature sensitivity, may result in Brown Séquard’s syndrome.Anatomically, this is due to the complete transverse lesion of the spinal cord. Central spinal cord syndrome is characterized mainly by paresis of the hands, weakness in the legs is less pronounced, there are varying degrees of severity of sensitivity disorders below the level of the lesion, urinary retention. In some cases, mainly with trauma, accompanied by a sharp bending of the spine, a syndrome of damage to the posterior cords of the spinal cord may develop – loss of deep types of sensitivity.

Damage to the spinal cord (especially with complete damage to its diameter) is characterized by dysregulation of the functions of various internal organs: respiratory disorders in cervical lesions, intestinal paresis, dysfunction of the pelvic organs, trophic disorders with the rapid development of pressure ulcers.

In the acute stage of trauma, violations of cardiovascular activity, a drop in blood pressure are often observed. With a fracture of the vertebrae, an external examination of the patient and the identification of such changes as concomitant damage to soft tissues, reflex muscle tension, sharp pain when pressing on the vertebrae, and finally, external deformation of the spine can have a certain value in its recognition.

Along with this, there may be obstruction of gastric distention, the treatment of which usually requires nasogastric drainage. Likewise, bladder distention occurs, which occurs due to compression of the muscles in the bladder and pelvic floor. Emptying the bladder negatively affects venous circulation and can lead to increased systemic hypotension of the inferior vena cava or by putting severe pressure on the pelvic veins to prevent excessive bloating.

If the spinal cord injury is above the T5 level, the blood pressure is usually low.At the same time, denervation of the sympathetic nervous system is formed, which causes an increase in clogging of the veins and a weakening of venous circulation.

Tachycardia is a compensatory response to hypotension and is common in cervical spinal cord injury and bradycardia. If patients do not have symptoms of myocardial infarction or are at risk of stroke or paralysis due to other serious illnesses, this type of bradycardia does not need treatment.

After hemodynamic fixation is provided, it is necessary to perform an X-ray of the patient’s spine, who must stand motionless on a special board fixing the spine with a rigid cervical collar fixed.Make sure that the fixation is firm to ensure the accuracy of the resulting images. If the patient has multiple injuries and / or is in a coma, it is necessary to obtain clear images of his spine, which will fully display all segments of the spine. For a more detailed examination of the fracture sites, CT can be performed, as well as axial and sagittal images. If there are no abnormalities on radiographs and, at the same time, if there is a neurological deficit in the background of the spinal cord, then to identify damage to the intervertebral discs or spinal epidural hematoma after CT, the patient can be examined using MRI or myelography.

Treatment is aimed at correcting the structure of the spine, protecting intact nerve tissue, restoring nerve tissue and ensuring long-term stabilization of the spine. In this case, priority is given to the correction and fixation of the displaced vertebrae or the elimination of any fractures or injuries to the segments of the spine.

Displacements of the vertebrae can almost always be corrected in a neutral position using skeletal traction. In order to make sure that the vertebrae are built correctly, X-rays are often taken.

In patients with fractures of the lumbar spine, treatment begins primarily with fixation. At the same time, the fixation is not so tight compared to cervical fractures. Avoiding bending, stretching, rotation, the patient should lie motionless on a flat bed. As a rule, there are far fewer systemic complications associated with neurological disorders, and nevertheless, vigilance is necessary to ensure neurological recovery.

Indications for the need for early surgery in patients with spinal cord injury are: fractures / displacement that cannot be cured with closed surgical methods, neurological disorders in patients with local lesions; Penetrating injuries that cause or do not leak CMF or place severe pressure on the spinal cord, or damage channels imaged by MRI or myelography.For open wounds, such as stab wounds and gunshot injuries, although the spine is completely damaged, it is necessary to very thoroughly rinse and clean and close the site of injury. them or bruises. ny place even. whether or not the wounds are cleaned and sealed. The reasons for early surgery to stabilize the spine are justified. Because it provides an opportunity for early mobilization and rehabilitation of the patient. Depending on the nature and degree of spinal injury, arthroscopic or a posteriori methods can be used.

If restoration with closed methods has brought successful results and fixation of the fracture site has been ensured, then complete recovery may require at least 3 months of using stable external immobilization.

Stable external immobilization is also required for surgical intervention during recovery and / or in cases of urgent need for its use. After the application of arthroscopic or posterior plates, the use of a cervical collar is sufficient.When fixing the lumbar spine, again, it is necessary to ensure the immobility of the spine for at least 3 months using a plastic jacket or a plastic-plaster fixator. Plain radiographs throughout the spinal cord repair process will be examined to monitor the spine.

If any functions of the spinal cord are preserved immediately after the injury, then some functions may be restored provided that there is no secondary damage to the spinal cord and spinal cord.In cases with the occurrence of bone marrow injuries, the functions located below the level of the lesion can be completely restored. Rehabilitation of such patients is carried out in accordance with their daily care and professional adaptation. Long-term skin care problems and recurrent urinary tract infections are the cause of premature death.

90,000 Treatment of perinatal lesions of the central nervous system in Kharkov

Perinatal lesions of the central nervous system (PPCNS) – combine several diagnoses at once, which are expressed in dysfunctions of the brain and spinal cord arising during pregnancy and in newborns, which in turn can lead to persistent neurological diseases in the older age (as an example, cerebral palsy).

It is important to know that perinatal lesions of the central nervous system , in particular the brain (including intracranial hemorrhages, severe cerebral ischemia) are a real threat to the life and health of your child, even if highly qualified medical care is provided in a timely manner. As for the moderate and mild forms of brain damage, they do not pose a threat to life, but at the same time, they can become a serious impetus for a child’s mental disorder and the development of his motor activity.

Causes and risk factors for the occurrence of PCNS?

Perinatal damage to the central nervous system can develop for a variety of reasons, the most famous are:

chronic maternal intoxication
chronic maternal diseases (diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, obesity, anemia, cardiovascular pathology)
maternal diseases associated with metabolic disorders (diabetes mellitus, phenylketonuria, etc.)e)
disorders of uteroplacental blood flow, placental abruption, etc.
immunological incompatibility of mother and fetus (according to ABO and Rh factor)
stress and psychological discomfort of a pregnant woman
infectious diseases during pregnancy
umbilical cord entanglement
severe toxicosis
prematurity
fetal malformations

Also, a special place in the development of PPTSNS is occupied by birth trauma and fetal asphyxia, which can occur under the following conditions:

rapid or prolonged labor
premature birth
clinically narrow pelvis
breech presentation of the fetus
weakness of labor
cesarean section

Symptoms of perinatal lesions of the central nervous system

PPTSNS is distinguished by very multifaceted symptoms, among which it is worth highlighting:

Muscular dystonia , which is characterized by a pathological increase or decrease in muscle tone.In newborns, it is normal to have an increased muscle tone of the flexor muscles, which begins to decrease in the process of growth and development, and goes to normal. This transformation allows the newborn to have the necessary set of protective reflexes; in the process of growth, the reduced tone of the flexors will make it possible to form the correct movements. In cases where muscle tone has not decreased in a timely manner or does not change symmetrically, this greatly interferes with the normal motor development of the child.
Syndrome of neuro-reflex excitability – disturbance of sleep and wakefulness, hyperactive reaction to various sounds, touch.
Inhibition of the central nervous system , which can be expressed by apathy, lethargy, drowsiness, decreased tone and reflexes.
Intracranial hypertension . This syndrome occurs with increased intracranial pressure. The most characteristic of this syndrome are: hyperexcitability, regurgitation, obsessive screaming and Graefe’s symptom. Intracranial hypertension can lead to the development of hydrocephalus (a decrease in the volume of brain tissue and its replacement with fluid).
Convulsive syndrome – involuntary muscle contractions of the whole body, which are accompanied by loss of consciousness or simply “freezing” for a few seconds.The danger of seizure syndrome is that, if untreated, it significantly disrupts the normal development of the brain and its function.

Diagnosis of perinatal lesions of the central nervous system

The diagnosis is established by a pediatric neurologist on the basis of examination, including complaints from parents, anamnestic data with an assessment of existing risk factors, examination of the child. Ultrasound examination of ultrasound of the brain (neurosonography) with an assessment of the state of blood vessels (Doppler ultrasonography) is of great importance.

Treatment of perinatal lesions of the central nervous system

In the treatment of PPCNS, attention is paid not only to the restoration of disorders of the functions of the nervous system that already exist, but also to prevent the development of new pathological processes that may occur in a child with PPCS.
In drug treatment, for example, nootropics, drugs that restore trophic processes in the brain, such as cerebrolysin, cortexin, piracetam, pantocalcin, solcoseryl, and other nootropic drugs can be used.To stimulate general reactivity, a newborn child is given a course of therapeutic massage and special therapeutic exercises, and, if necessary, a complex of physiotherapeutic procedures.

A huge role in the implementation of rehabilitation measures and restoration of impaired functions is the timely response of parents!

In the event that parents find even the slightest sign of CNS lesions, you should immediately contact a pediatric neurologist. It should not be forgotten that the development of a child is an individual process, and such individual characteristics of a newborn in each specific case play an important role in the process of restoring the functions of the central nervous system.

Diseases of the peripheral nerve trunks and plexuses

The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system with organs and limbs. Unlike the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system is not protected by bones and does not have a physiological barrier separating it from the circulatory system. In view of the above, the peripheral nervous system can be susceptible to mechanical damage, it is more easily affected by toxins.

Diseases of the peripheral nerves are neuropathies.They are characterized by damage to the axons and the myelin sheath of the nerves. Diseases of the nerve trunks and plexuses in terms of prevalence among the population occupy the 2nd place after diseases of the spinal roots (“radiculitis”). Therefore, the issues of prevention, early diagnosis and subsequent treatment of neuropathies remain urgent problems.

Types

Demyelinating. The conductivity of excitation through neurons is impaired. Occur in lead poisoning, diphtheria, polyradiculoneuropathy, diabetic polyneuropathy.The restoration of the patient’s health occurs within a few weeks, if the treatment is started in a timely manner.
Axonopathies. In this case, the damage concerns axons (processes of nerve cells) – these are severe dysfunctions of nerves. As a result, muscle atrophy occurs. The cause of these disorders is the abuse of alcohol and other toxic substances.

The most common neuropathies of mixed genesis. Full recovery and restoration of nerve function depends in part on the severity of the injury.

If the recovery process is absent 3 months after the onset of the disease, then the prognosis is most often unfavorable.

Types of neuropathy

Mononeuropathies. One nerve or a specific part of the nerve plexus is injured. The causes of damage can be trauma, compression of any levels of the nerve trunk. Also, mononeuropathies are observed in diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, vascular lesions, etc. Hypothermia and herpetic infections are not the last place in disorders of one nerve.
Multifocal neuropathies are a syndrome of partial damage to individual nerve trunks or their complete damage. Such neuropathies proceed slowly and consistently (from several days to several years). Causes of occurrence: arthritis, vasculitis and a number of systemic connective tissue diseases.
Polyneuropathy. Peripheral nerve damage is multiple. Moreover, the process is widespread and symmetrical. It proceeds both acutely and chronically. It happens that the spinal roots are also affected.

The causes of diseases of the peripheral nerve trunks and plexuses can be:

received injuries
decrease in the normal function of the immune system
hereditary diseases
intoxication with various substances
infections
lack of vitamins for habitual intoxication
)
Allergies

Symptoms

With neuropathies, the symptoms may vary and depend on the affected area.They deliver a lot of unpleasant sensations to the patient:

flaccid muscle paralysis
pain in the limbs
change in skin sensitivity (there may be a contrast of sensations in one area of the skin compared to another)
no pain sensations and not only
muscle atrophy
speech impairment
feeling of numbness of the face, limbs
muscle weakness of the limbs
impaired coordination of movements
dry skin
focal blanching
redness and blue discoloration of the injured area
asymmetry of the facial nerves
may occur asymmetry of the facial nerves

If you find you have at least one of the symptoms described, you should immediately seek the help of a qualified neurologist.

Diagnostics

Diagnostics is performed by an experienced neurologist. During the initial examination, he:

will listen carefully to complaints
will collect a full anamnesis (life and illness)
will conduct an examination, incl. will check the safety of reflexes and specify the zones of nerve damage
, if necessary, the doctor will prescribe other types of diagnostic tests

The success of further treatment will depend on the accuracy of the diagnosis.

Treatment

In our clinic, the methods of traditional and alternative medicine are used in the treatment of neuropathies. Complex treatment is selected only individually and completely depends on the degree of damage to the nerve (s).

Initial treatment will focus on restoring the function of the peripheral nerves, therefore, the cause will be eliminated.

An integrated approach is important in the treatment of neuropathies! Our specialists will take into account all the nuances of damage and can prescribe:

drugs that improve metabolism, blood circulation and recovery processes in the nervous tissue.Medicines can also be used in an injection form, including intravenous drip in a cozy day hospital
hormonal drugs (steroids) – in some cases
therapeutic drug blockade
certain types of physiotherapeutic treatment
manual therapy (osteopathy)
classic massage

Forecast

Treatment of diseases of the peripheral nerve trunks and plexuses can last long enough, and the result is not always positive.

The success of the result largely depends on how timely the patient sought medical help. The earlier treatment begins, the more favorable the prognosis can be made.

If you suspect a disease of the nervous system, do not delay visiting a neurologist!

Recommendations and prevention

The main prevention of most diseases of the nervous system is maintaining a healthy and active lifestyle, giving up bad habits, timely and adequate treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.

If you experience any neurological symptoms, do not postpone the visit to the doctor. Early diagnosis and timely treatment will help prevent the development of complications, lengthening the treatment time and the consequences of uncontrolled drug intake. The most complete program of preventive measures is drawn up by a neurologist for each individual patient.

Frequently asked questions

Three fingers on the right hand become numb and sore. What to do?

It is necessary to see a neurologist to rule out carpal tunnel syndrome and treat it.

For a long time there was an attack of trigeminal neuralgia. Do I need to take something for prevention so that there is not another one?

It is imperative to be observed by a neurologist. The doctor will select the drugs you need to take constantly and prescribe preventive courses of injections (if necessary, drip in a day hospital) and tablets.

Severe burning pains appeared in the right side of the chest and some blisters appeared.Which doctor should I see?

Similar manifestations, as you describe, can be observed with herpetic ganglioneuritis, the so-called. shingles. This disease is treated by a neurologist.

About 2 months the legs began to grow numb and weakened. Why could this be?

Weakness and sensory disturbances in the limbs can be observed with polyneuropathies of various nature. For example, as a result of diabetes or intoxication. To establish the cause and the selection of adequate therapy, you must consult a neurologist.Perhaps there is a need for additional laboratory and instrumental examinations.

I have a weakness in my right arm after sleeping. Is it from the spine?

The cause of sudden weakness in the arm can also be diseases of the spine. However, a vascular cause or compression of the nerve trunk (nerve plexus) cannot be ruled out. To find out the reason and to prescribe treatment, you should consult a neurologist.

Can alcoholic neuropathy be cured?

Toxic and dysmetabolic polyneuropathies, incl.including alcoholic are, most often, chronic diseases. On the background of adequate therapy, it is possible to achieve a long and stable remission

Treatment histories

Case No. 1

Patient Y. 40 years old, noticed a sudden asymmetry of the face, lacrimation from the right eye and incomplete closure of his eyelids. I went to a neurologist at the EXPERT Clinic. The patient was diagnosed with acute neuritis of the facial nerve and prescribed treatment and examination.

The patient underwent a course of intramuscular and intravenous drip injections in the day hospital of the EXPERT Clinic, courses of physiotherapy exercises and point self-massage.The movements in the facial muscles were fully restored.

During the examination, the oncological nature of the disease was excluded, but its herpetic nature was revealed against the background of a secondary immunodeficiency state. After consulting an immunologist, the patient Y. was prescribed a course of immunomodulatory therapy.

Science: Science and technology: Lenta.ru

An international group of scientists has established that in the body of rats there is a system of peculiar “mini-brains” that can suppress the feeling of pain by blocking the excitation of certain neurons.If it is confirmed that something similar exists in humans, this could lead to the creation of new effective pain relievers. Lenta.ru talks about the work published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation.

According to modern concepts, the sensation of pain occurs when the corresponding signals are perceived by the central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord. In a new study, scientists have shown that the peripheral nervous system plays a larger role in this than was previously thought.

The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves that extend from the brain and spinal (spinal) nerves that originate in the spine. One of its functions is to provide communication between the outside world and the body. The main role in this is played by sensory neurons (they are also called afferent), which transmit information from receptors in the sense organs, where their endings are located, to the central nervous system.

Materials on the topic

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There are specialized neurons, nociceptors, which are activated only by those stimuli that damage or can damage body tissues.They are located in the skin or in internal organs and “turn on” when the exposure exceeds a certain threshold of excitability. The central nervous system, having received a signal of a dangerous effect from nociceptors, processes it and triggers autonomic, somatic, and behavioral reactions that provide adaptive responses to a painful stimulus.

Sensory neurons conduct pain impulses to a specific area of the brain called the thalamus. This is a kind of transshipment point, where the redistribution of information coming from the senses is carried out.The thalamus is composed of several nuclei. If information about pain enters specific sensory nuclei before traveling to the sensory cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, a person can tell exactly where they are hurting. If the information passes through nonspecific nuclei, the pain will be poorly localized and dull.

In specific sensory nuclei, impulses enter through myelin fibers (Aδ), and in nonspecific ones – through nonmyelin fibers (C). The first path is called neospinothalamic, and it is evolutionarily younger.

Ronald Melzack

In 1965, Science published an article by Canadian psychologist Ronald Melzack and neuroscientist Patrick Wall, in which they formulated the gate control theory of pain. Scientists have suggested that sensory neurons in the spinal cord transmit impulses both to cells leading to the thalamus and to inhibitory neurons that prevent further signal transmission. If the pain impulse is strong enough, it blocks inhibitory neurons and travels to the brain.However, these neurons are fired if they receive other types of impulses with information about touch, pressure and vibration. The more we feel touch or pressure, the more the pain dulls.

Such logic circuits are found in the peripheral nervous system. Some areas of the spinal cord include both Aδ and C fibers, as well as non-nociceptive Aβ-fibers, which conduct non-painful impulses. The latter suppress the functions of nociceptors, closing the “gates” for their signals, or everything happens the other way around.Thus, the control gate theory explains how the sensation of pain can be reduced. For example, rubbing a bruised area can dull the unpleasant sensation. Anesthetic electromyostimulation with electrodes is based on the same principle.

Moreover, Melzak has come to the conclusion that the brain itself can control the feeling of pain. Activation of its special area – the Sylvian aqueduct – causes analgesia, while the descending nerve pathways are activated, suppressing the excitation of nociceptors in the spinal cord.The brain is able to determine which pain impulses should be ignored and which ones should be responded to.

A new study published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation shows that nerve nodes in the peripheral system also control the transmission of pain impulses. These nodes – the ganglia of the peripheral system – are clusters of neurons that perform a specific function, in this case a sensory one. Scientists have found that nerve cells in the ganglia synthesize proteins necessary for the synthesis of a special amino acid, GABA.

GABA or γ-aminobutyric acid is the most important neurotransmitter of the central nervous system that performs an inhibitory function. When GABA hits the junction of two neurons, the impulse between these cells is blocked. Previously, it was believed that GABA is inherent only in the central nervous system, but now it has become clear that this amino acid carries out neurotransmitter functions in the periphery. According to one of the authors of the work, Nikita Gamper, ganglia are a kind of “mini-brains” that decide whether to send pain signals further to the brain or block them.

Experiments on rats have shown that GABA dramatically reduces the level of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. At the same time, it is unclear whether such a system of “mini-brains” exists in humans. If so, scientists could use it to develop new pain relievers.

The floors of the body and the lie detector: why do we need the nervous system

Why it is incorrect to compare the brain and the computer, how many floors our body is divided, as well as what the lie detector measures, the professor of the Department of Human and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, told Sirius students.V. Lomonosov, a specialist in the field of brain physiology Vyacheslav Dubynin.

The brain is the basis of all our emotions, sensory sensations, thoughts, impulses of voluntary and involuntary actions.

At all times, the human nervous system was compared with the most complex structures, the highest technical achievements at that time. For example, in the late 17th century, Rene Descartes drew an analogy between the brain and a complex machine that has levers, valves, and gas cylinders. By the way, it was this idea that led to the emergence of the concept of the reflex work of the brain, when the body triggers a response to the action of the environment.

200 years later, in the 19th century, the brain was compared to a telephone exchange, transmitting signals between subscribers using electrical impulses.

Today, the brain is constantly compared to a computer. Indeed, at first glance, both of them deal with information: they receive, process, store data, launch programs and reactions. But in fact, the analogy with a computer is as approximate as Cartesian.

For a computer, the main thing is to work with exact numbers. For example, multiply two six-digit numbers and get the result instantly.Our brains are clearly not made for this.

Now neuroscientists, psychologists, philosophers agree that the central nervous system of a person (spinal cord and brain) was created in order, first of all, to form an information copy of the space reflecting us. This is sometimes called the “speech model of the outside world.” Using this model, the brain controls behavior, predicts important events, and looks ahead. It turns out that our brain is more of a predictive machine that calculates the probability of a certain event happening.Nobody needs special accuracy in such calculations. If the brain worked in this sense concretely and unambiguously, then the fox, for example, could accurately calculate which path the hare will run, and this, from the point of view of the hare’s survival, is very bad.

We can also say that our internal computer generates approximate forecasts plus some noble noise that underlies individuality and creativity. It is this noise that allows us to act differently in the same situation.

Does not obey Consciousness

Let’s turn as an example to the simplest part of our central nervous system – the spinal cord.It is divided into 31 segments and this division roughly corresponds to the human vertebrae. Accordingly, our body is also divided into 31 floors, and each segment of the spinal cord works with its own floor of the body. Cervical (there are 8 of them) – with the neck, arms, diaphragm. The chest segments (12 of them) work with the trunk. Five lumbar – with legs. The last 6 segments work with the pelvic area.

Each segment reads information from its floor of the body: pain and skin sensitivity, muscle strain, joint position, temperature.And in accordance with the information received, the spinal cord sends commands. For example, sending impulses to muscles triggers their contractions and motor reflexes; to the internal organs – autonomic reflexes (reactions of internal organs).

Each of us has more than 400 muscles, and, controlling this economy, the spinal cord listens to the commands of the cerebellum, cerebral cortex and other motor centers.

Vegetative responses are also complex and often less researched. Our autonomic nervous system controls the work of the heart, intestines, the diameter of the bronchi, vascular tone, sweat glands, and the genitourinary system.This is not easy to study because our motor reflexes are voluntarily controlled, and in the case of what the autonomic nervous system is doing, there is no voluntary control. Vegetation is autonomous, not directly subordinate to consciousness.

“I can move my finger, but I cannot say to the vessels in this finger, ‘Come on, expand.’ In these areas, evolution did not allow our consciousness, they are too important and concern the survival of the organism. As a result, doctors and pharmacologists have to look for drugs that would imitate the work of the autonomic system in the body and help fight hypertension, for example, ” – says the lecturer.

“Didn’t you rob the bank for sure?”

As you know, anatomically and functionally, the autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic. Thanks to the invention of various devices that measure the work of our internal organs, it became clear that it is the sympathetic nervous system that largely provides the response to stress – it mobilizes the body when it is necessary to fight, run away, spend physical and mental energy, actively think, experience emotions.

It also turned out that reactions associated with emotions are quite important to register. We sweat when stressed, because stress is usually associated with movement, and movement is the release of heat and excess heat must be removed from the body so that it does not overheat. Some of the effects are realized through the expansion of blood vessels in the skin, and some through the sweat glands.

“Droplets of sweat, when they stand out on the surface of the skin, carry with them a little negative charge, and we can register this charge with the help of sensors.Sweating is actually a very sensitive thing. These glands work not only with obvious stress, but also manifest themselves even with mild emotions. The electrical activity of the skin was noticed over 100 years ago, ” explains the expert.

It was on the basis of this activity that what is now called a lie detector was invented. The easiest way to register a person’s emotions is to put the sensors on areas where there are many sweat glands. The palms are just one of those areas.While there are no emotions, a straight line is written, and then a question is asked and the reaction is measured – highlighted droplets and a negative charge. Different questions are asked, starting with the simple “Is your name Valentine?” and to complex and very significant: “Did you rob the bank?” At the moment when a person is experiencing anxiety, the waves are usually stronger.

But here not everything is so transparent, the results also depend on different temperaments. As you know, there are 4 basic types: sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric.

“A choleric person, for example, experiences more emotions, the question has long since ended, but he is still thinking about it. The phlegmatic is such a calm type that sometimes it seems as if the device has broken down. The melancholic does not even need to ask any questions. The fact that he was brought to this terrible place already scares him, his hands are cold and sweaty, ” – says Vyacheslav Dubynin .

Central nervous system cns. Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord Function and Structure Explained

The Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord

The Brain: Command Center of the Body

The Spinal Cord: Information Superhighway

Unique Characteristics of the Central Nervous System

Protective Mechanisms of the Central Nervous System

Physical Barriers

Shock Absorption

The Blood-Brain Barrier

The Challenge of CNS Regeneration

Cellular Components of the Central Nervous System

Neurons: The Information Processors

Glial Cells: The Support System

Astrocytes

Microglia

Oligodendrocytes

Synaptic Transmission: The Language of the Nervous System

The Synaptic Process

Neurotransmitters: Chemical Messengers

Spinal Cord Function and Organization

Anatomical Structure

White and Gray Matter

Spinal Reflexes

Disorders and Injuries of the Central Nervous System

Neurodegenerative Diseases

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)

Stroke

Current Research and Future Directions in CNS Science

Stem Cell Therapy

Neuroprosthetics and Brain-Computer Interfaces

Gene Therapy

Neuroplasticity-based Therapies

Immunomodulation

How the spinal cord works

What is the central nervous system?

How does the central nervous system differ from other systems of the body?

How does the central nervous system protect itself from injury?

Why can’t the central nervous system repair itself after injury?

Cells of the central nervous system

Synapses and neurotransmission

What causes paralysis?

The information pathways

Voluntary and involuntary movement

How the spinal cord and muscles work together

How the spinal cord and internal organs work together

What happens following a spinal cord injury?

Intervention strategies

Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord – Queensland Brain Institute

Grey and white matter

The brain

Parts of the brain

Central Nervous System (CNS) Structure and Function

Definition, Structure and Function

Structure of the CNS

Brain

Spinal Cord

Cells

Protective structures

About the Author

Overview of Nervous System Disorders

What is the nervous system?

What are some disorders of the nervous system?

Disorders of the nervous system

Signs and symptoms of nervous system disorders

Healthcare providers who treat nervous system disorders

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25.1 Introduction

Perinatal lesions of the central nervous system at the Central Clinical Hospital of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Clinical manifestations of PN CNS