EACH Breath Blog | American Lung Association

Our lungs are responsible for bringing oxygen into the bloodstream and removing carbon dioxide from our bodies. Each lung expands like a balloon when we inhale air, but what happens if the balloon cannot inflate?

That’s what is called a collapsed lung, a term that you might have heard before—it happens sometimes when there is trauma, such as a rib puncturing the lung—like what happened to UFC fighter Paul Felder in a recent match. But there are many reasons it can occur—ruptured air sacs, issues from underlying lung diseases like COPD and cystic fibrosis, even screaming too hard at a One Direction concert. What exactly makes a lung collapse? Introducing pneumothorax.

First some lung basics: Your lungs are located inside the chest wall. Each lung is divided into lobes which are similar to balloons filled with sponge-like tissue. The lobes are surrounded by the visceral pleura, membranes that separate your lungs from your chest wall. As you breathe in and out, the lungs slide against the parietal pleura – a plastic wrap-like membrane that covers the chest wall. However, if one of your “balloons” leaks, for example when COPD causes holes in the lung tissue, the air you inhale is going to travel through the leak and into space between your lungs and chest, called the pleural cavity. Similarly, if there is a hole in the parietal pleura (like a bullet through the chest wall, for example), that can cause air to enter the pleural cavity directly from the outside.

“Because that air has nowhere to go, it keeps accumulating inside this space and builds up pressure between the chest wall and the lungs.  As the pressure and amount of air in this cavity increase it compresses your lung further and further, making it unable to expand when you breathe. That is a pneumothorax.” says Dr. Rutland, pulmonary and critical care physician and American Lung Association volunteer spokesperson. Pneumothorax is the medical term most people associate with a lung collapse but actually means “air in the pleura space causing your lungs to collapse or be compressed. ” The pressure from the air keeps your lungs from being able to fully expand.

The term “collapsed lung” is often used in everyday speech as being the same as a pneumothorax.  However, a lung can collapse in two general ways—pressure from “outside” the lung as in pneumothorax described above or from lack of flow “into” the lung because the bronchial tubes or “pipes” are blocked by mucus, a polyp or a tumor. This type of collapsed lung is medically termed an atelectatic lung or atelectasis and is treated differently.

What are the symptoms of a pneumothorax

Symptoms of pneumothorax include shortness of breath, chest pain on one side, and experiencing pain when breathing. If you suspect you have pneumothorax, go to the emergency room right away. A chest X-ray will confirm this.

How is a pneumothorax treated?

Depending on the cause and the size of the leak, the lung can often heal itself, but in order to do so, the extra air in the pleura space needs to be removed to reduce the pressure so the lung can re-expand. If the size of the pneumothorax is large and creating significant distress, an emergency procedure includes the doctor placing a needle in the chest to remove the pressure quickly. This is then followed by placing a tube in the chest that is kept in place for a day or two until the leak is healed and closed and the lung is re-expanded.” 

This hollow tube is inserted between the ribs and is attached to a suction device to remove the air in the pleura space.⁵ Once this chest tube is inserted, it typically takes about 48 hours or so for the lung to heal.

Dr. Rutland says a simple test is performed to tell if the lung has healed. First, the chest tube is hooked up to a chamber system with water. Then the patient is instructed to cough. If air is escaping from the lung into the tube, bubbles will appear in the water chamber. “Once there are no more bubbles rushing through when I tell my patients to cough, then I know that the lung is healed, and I can take the tube out. ”

How can I prevent pneumothorax?

While most cases cannot be prevented, discontinuing the use of tobacco products can reduce your risk of lung disease associated with pneumothorax. While males are generally more likely to experience pneumothorax, your genetics can also predispose you to certain types.

Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) | British Lung Foundation

A pneumothorax is when air gets into the space between the outside of your lung and the inside of your chest wall, your ribcage. 

On this page:

What is a pneumothorax?

A pneumothorax is a collapsed lung.

A pneumothorax is when air gets into the space between the outside of your lung and the inside of your chest wall, your ribcage. A small pneumothorax may cause few or no symptoms. A large pneumothorax can squash the lung and cause it to collapse.

A pneumothorax can be small and get better with time. Or, it can be large and require urgent treatment. This depends on how much air gets trapped in the chest and if you have an existing lung condition.

The air that builds up usually comes from a tear on the outside of the lung. But air can also come from outside your body if you have a chest injury.

If the tear is small, it will close as the lung collapses down so only a small amount of air can escape. If there is a larger hole, then the lung may collapse down completely.

If air continues to get into the pleural space as someone breathes, this can start to compress the other lung and heart. This is called a tension pneumothorax and can be life-threatening. Emergency treatment is needed to release the trapped air.

If someone becomes breathless with sudden chest pain, dial 999.

What causes a pneumothorax?

Primary spontaneous pneumothorax

This is when a pneumothorax develops in an otherwise healthy person, for no apparent reason. It’s the most common type of pneumothorax and happens most often in healthy young adults.

Primary spontaneous pneumothoraxes occur due to a small tear on the outer part of the lung. It’s not always clear why this happens but is probably due to an area of weakness when the lung is developing, like a small blister. Air escapes from the lung but gets trapped between the lung and the chest wall.

Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax

This is when a pneumothorax develops in someone who has an existing lung condition, usually chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It’s more likely to occur if the condition weakens the edge of the lung, making it more likely to tear. Other lung conditions that may do this are:

Other causes of a pneumothorax

Pneumothorax can be caused by a chest injury, such as a car crash. It can also happen by accident during a medical procedure, when a needle is inserted into the chest. Acupuncture needles can cause a pneumothorax if they puncture the lining of the lung.

Pneumothorax can also occur after endobronchial valve placement to treat emphysema, or other surgery to the lung.

Who is at risk of a pneumothorax?

It’s more likely for men to have a pneumothorax than women. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax is more likely to happen in tall, thin people.

You’re more likely to have a pneumothorax if:

• you have an existing lung condition
• you smoke
• you have had a pneumothorax in the past

If you’ve had a pneumothorax, stopping smoking will reduce the risk of it happening again.

What are the symptoms of a pneumothorax?

Symptoms include:

• sudden, sharp stabbing pain on one side of the chest that gets worse when you breathe in
• feeling breathless

You’ll usually be diagnosed by a chest X-ray. Sometimes you’ll also have a CT scan of your chest.

How is a pneumothorax treated?

The treatment of a pneumothorax depends on its size, and whether it’s expanding, as well as what has caused it. The aim is to relieve the pressure on your lung to allow it to re-expand.

If the pneumothorax is small, and the tear in your lung is small, the leak usually heals itself in a few days and the trapped air is gradually absorbed by your body. You can use over-the-counter painkillers if the pain is bad. You may have an X-ray after a week or so to check the pneumothorax has gone.

If a pneumothorax is causing breathlessness, you may be given oxygen.

The excess air may be removed by:

• inserting a needle into the air-filled space and sucking the air out through a very thin tube using a syringe. This is called aspiration.
• using a chest drain. This is a flexible plastic tube that’s inserted through the chest wall, after the area is numbed. The drain allows air out but not back in, so your lung can re-inflate. The tube is secured and stays in place until the air leak has resolved and the lung re-inflated. You will have to stay in hospital until it has resolved. On average, this is around 2 – 5 days, but it can be longer.

If a pneumothorax occurs more than once on the same side or an air leak persists despite aspiration or a chest drain, you might need to have a small operation. This will seal the weak areas on the edge of the lung where the air leaks are happening. This surgery may also involve a form of pleurodesis, where the lung is stuck to the inside of the chest wall, to make sure the lung can’t collapse again.

Flying and diving with a pneumothorax

Flying with a pneumothorax can be dangerous. This is because air in the pleural space in your chest will expand at the lower cabin pressure during the flight. This can compress the lung and can be dangerous. It’s important to wait until your doctor says it is safe before flying. This is usually a month after the pneumothorax happens and after a chest X-ray confirms it has been treated successfully.

You should not scuba dive if you have had a pneumothorax because of the risk of your lung collapsing again underwater. In some cases, surgical treatment can remove this risk. Ask your health care professional for more information.

Download our pneumothorax information (517KB, PDF)

Is a Collapsed Lung Making You Breathless?

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Suddenly you’re short of breath. Or you feel a sharp pain in your chest. While these symptoms can be caused by lots of health problems, they can be triggered by lung conditions known as pneumothorax (collapsed lung) or atelectasis (partial collapsed lung). 

Symptoms can range from mild to life-threatening. Being aware of the signs and symptoms of a collapsed or partially collapsed lung can help you know when it’s time to seek emergency care.

Who’s at Risk? 

Risk factors for a pneumothorax (collapsed lung) include:

• Smoking: The more and longer you smoke, the more you’re at risk.
• Age: One type of collapsed lung is caused by ruptured air blebs. It’s most likely to occur in tall, thin people between 20 and 40 years old. 
• Genetics: Certain types of pneumothorax run in families. 
• Lung disease: Having a lung disease — especially chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) — makes a collapsed lung more likely.
• Mechanical ventilation: People who use mechanical ventilation to help them breathe are at higher risk.
• Previous pneumothorax: Anyone who has already had a collapsed lung is at increased risk for another.

These health care procedures and conditions can increase the risk for atelectasis (a partially collapsed lung):

• Surgery under anesthesia (medicine to make you sleep), which can slow or stop your normal breathing effort 
• Conditions that make breathing painful — for example, chest or abdominal surgery, an injury or broken ribs
• Being on a ventilator (a machine that supports breathing)
• An airway that’s blocked by a foreign object, a mucus plug, lung cancer or a poorly placed breathing tube
• Lung diseases that makes deep breathing difficult, like lung cancer or pneumonia

If you smoke or are obese, your risk for atelectasis also increases.

Being aware of the signs and symptoms of a collapsed or partially collapsed lung can help you know when it’s time to seek emergency care.

What Causes Pneumothorax and Atelectasis?

A collapsed or partially collapsed lung happens when air invades the pleural space, the area between the lung and the chest wall. Causes include:

• A blunt or penetrating chest injury, like one caused by a car accident
• Lung diseases such as pneumonia or lung cancer, because damaged lung tissue is more likely to collapse
• Using a ventilator to breathe 
• Chest or abdominal surgery 
• Rupturing of small air blebs that can develop on the top of your lungs. If they burst, air will leak into the space surrounding the lungs
• A blocked airway 

What Are the Symptoms?

Symptoms for both conditions are similar:

• Shortness of breath 
• Sudden chest pain

Call your doctor right away if you experience either one. If breathing becomes increasingly difficult or your chest pain is severe, head to the ER. 

How Are They Diagnosed and Treated?

To confirm if you have atelectasis or pneumothorax, your health care provider will examine you carefully. She may give you one or more of these tests: 

• Lab tests to check oxygen and blood gas levels
• Chest X-rays or CT scans of the lungs
• Bronchoscopy (a procedure to look inside the airways)

Your doctor’s goal is to reinflate the collapsed lung tissue. Treatment may include:

• Insertion of a chest tube
• Clapping on the chest to loosen mucus plugs in the airway
• Deep breathing exercises, often using an incentive spirometer
• Removing blockages in the airways

After treatment, you will be given directions on how to care for yourself and when to follow up with your doctor. If your condition needs additional treatment, you may be admitted to the hospital for more procedures.  

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Source: Medline Plus; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute

Pneumothorax – St Vincent’s Lung Health

A pneumothorax is when the lung has collapsed due to air entering the space around your lungs (known as the pleural space).

What is a pneumothorax?
What causes a pneumothorax?
What are the signs and symptoms of a pneumothorax?
What are the possible tests to diagnose a pneumothorax?
What are the possible treatments for a pneumothorax?
What is the future plan if I’ve had a pneumothorax?

What is a pneumothorax?

A pneumothorax is when the lung has collapsed due to air entering the space around your lungs (known as the pleural space). Air can enter the pleural space through an opening in your chest wall or in the lung. Air in the pleural space creates an increase in pressure around the lung and causes it to collapse.

A pneumothorax can be severe, depending on how much air is trapped in the pleural space. A small amount of trapped air can usually resolve by itself, provided there are no other complications. Larger amounts of trapped air can be serious and lead to death if medical treatment is not obtained.

The image below shows a pneumothorax. (Click image to enlarge)

What causes a pneumothorax?

There are four types of pneumothorax.

Primary spontaneous pneumothorax

Primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in young people (aged 15-34) without any history of lung disease. Whilst the cause is not well understood, people at risk include smokers, tall men and those who have had a family member with a pneumothorax.

Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax

Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax typically occurs in people who have pre-existing connective tissue disorders (such as Marfan’s Syndrome) or lung diseases such as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cystic fibrosis, tuberculosis,  pneumonia, lung cancer, sarcoidosis, pulmonary fibrosis or cystic lung diseases (such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis – LAM).

Traumatic pneumothorax

Traumatic pneumothorax occurs from a traumatic injury to the chest or wall of the lung, usually from an accident or through a contact sport. Traumatic injuries can include:

• Changes in air pressure (ie scuba diving or climbing at altitude)
• Fractured ribs
• Injury to the chest as a result of contact sport (ie tackle in rugby)
• Medical procedures that damage the lung (such as a lung biopsy or use of a ventilator)
• Stab or bullet wounds.

Tension pneumothorax

Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate treatment. Air cannot escape the pleural space, so every time the person breathes in, more air enters the space, increasing the pressure on the lung and heart. A tension pneumothorax is more likely to occur with trauma, such as a knife wound to the chest.  

What are the signs and symptoms of a pneumothorax?

Symptoms of a traumatic pneumothorax typically occur during the period of trauma or just after. In contrast, symptoms of a spontaneous non-traumatic pneumothorax usually occur when the person is at rest. Sudden, severe chest pain is often the first symptom of a pneumothorax. Other symptoms include:

• Abnormally fast heart rate (known as tachycardia)
• Blue-tinged lips and skin
• Breathlessness on exertion 
• Cold sweats
• Constant ache and tightness in the chest
• Difficulty catching your breath
• Sharp pain when breathing in, with fast and shallow breathing.

What are the possible tests to diagnose a pneumothorax?

Diagnosis of a pneumothorax is typically done via a chest X-ray, which takes images to detect the presence of air in the pleural space (area round the lungs). A CT scan and thoracic ultrasound can also be used to help diagnose a pneumothorax.

What are the possible treatments for a pneumothorax?

Treatment for a pneumothorax will depend on your symptoms, medical history and the severity of the pneumothorax. Treatment options can be both surgical and non-surgical and can include: 

• Chest drain insertion – can be used to help remove excess air in the pleural space, enabling your lungs to expand fully again
• Observation – is usually appropriate for people who have a primary spontaneous pneumothorax and who don’t have difficulty breathing; ongoing chest X-rays may be recommended to monitor lung function and to ensure all air from the pleural space has disappeared and the lungs can fully expand again, and it is recommended to avoid all contact sport and any activity, like air travel, that could impact on healing the pneumothorax 
• Pleurodesis – is a procedure which sticks the lung to the chest cavity; it is often recommended for people who have had previous pneumothorax to help prevent further collections of air in the pleural space, or in people with a chest drain and an ongoing leak of air that has not settled after a few days
• Surgery – there are several types of surgery for pneumothorax:
  • Thoracoscopy (also known as video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery or VATS) – is where a small camera is placed in the wall of your chest to help determine the best treatment; possibilities post-surgery include closing up blisters and air leaks, or removing a portion of the lung that has collapsed (called a lobectomy)
  • Thoracotomy – where an incision is made in the pleural space to help determine a suitable treatment option.

What is the future plan if I’ve had a pneumothorax?

Generally, you can see improvements from a pneumothorax as early as a few days after treatment. There is a risk of having another pneumothorax (because you have already had one), so if symptoms occur again it is important to seek medical attention straight away.

Depending on the type and severity of your pneumothorax, you may require follow-up monitoring with chest X-rays. You may also need to avoid air travel as instructed by your medical team. If you smoke, talk to your doctor about ways to quit, as smoking increases your risk for subsequent pneumothoraces.

Lung Cancer – Small Cell: Symptoms and Signs

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about body changes and other things that can signal a problem that may need medical care. Use the menu to see other pages.

People with SCLC may experience the following symptoms or signs. A symptom is something that only the person experiencing can identify and describe, such as fatigue, nausea, or pain. A sign is something that other people can identify and measure, such as a fever, rash, or an elevated pulse. Together, signs and symptoms can help describe a medical problem. Sometimes people with SCLC do not have any of the signs and symptoms below, but SCLC often causes these symptoms and they can worsen over weeks or sometimes days.

The cause of a symptoms may be a medical condition that is not cancer, but if you are concerned about any changes you experience, please talk with your doctor. Your doctor will ask how long and how often you have been experiencing the symptom(s), in addition to other questions. This is to help figure out the cause of the problem, called a diagnosis.

For people with SCLC who have no symptoms, the cancer may be seen on a chest x-ray or CT scan performed for some other reason, such as checking for heart disease. Most people with SCLC are diagnosed when the tumor grows and causes symptoms, takes up space, or begins to cause problems with parts of the body near the lungs. A lung tumor may also cause fluid to build up in the lung or the space around the lung or push the air out of the lungs and cause the lung to collapse. If this happens, you may feel short of breath. This is because enough oxygen is not getting in the body and carbon dioxide is not leaving the body quickly enough.

SCLC can spread anywhere in the body through a process called metastasis. It most commonly spreads to the lymph nodes, other parts of the lungs, bones, brain, liver, and structures near the kidneys called the adrenal glands. The symptoms of metastases from SCLC vary depending on where the cancer has spread in the body.

If cancer is diagnosed, relieving symptoms remains an important part of cancer care and treatment. This may be called “palliative care” or “supportive care”. It is often started soon after diagnosis and continued throughout treatment. Be sure to talk with your health care team about the symptoms you experience, including any new symptoms or a change in symptoms.

The next section in this guide is Diagnosis. It explains what tests may be needed to learn more about the cause of the symptoms. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Atelectasis – Craig Hospital

Atelectasis

What is atelectasis?

An abnormal condition in which all or part of the lung becomes airless and collapses, preventing the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

What causes atelectasis?

Atelectasis is caused by anything that prevents the lungs from expanding fully with each breath.

• When we take a deep breath, the bottom and back of our lungs will fill with air first. Conditions such as a weak or paralyzed diaphragm may not allow a patient to take a deep, full breath. Shallow breathing creates a situation where air may not make it to the air sacs at the base of your lungs; therefore, leading to collapse.
• If an airway becomes blocked from a mucus plug, thick secretions, or a foreign object such as food, air cannot get pass the blockage to fill the air sacs, causing this area of the lung to deflate.
• Atelectasis is common after surgery. The medicine used during surgery to make you sleep can decrease or stop your normal effort to breathe and urge to cough. Sometimes, especially after chest or abdominal surgery, pain may keep you from taking deep breaths. As a result, part of your lung may collapse or not inflate well.
• Pressure from outside the lungs also can make it hard to take deep breaths. Many factors can cause pressure outside the lungs, including a tight body cast, bone deformity or hardware, a pleural effusion (fluid buildup between the ribs and the lungs) or a pneumothorax (air buildup between the ribs and the lungs)

Risk Factors:

• Spinal cord injury level of T6-7 and above
• Inability to take a deep breath
• Weakened cough effort or no cough effort
• Prolonged bed rest
• Shallow breathing
• Rib fractures

Symptoms may include:

• Shortness of breath
• A decrease in oxygen saturation
• Increased heart rate
• Chest tightness
• Increased work of breath
• Or a patient may not experience any symptoms at all

How is it diagnosed?

A physician will diagnose atelectasis by reviewing a patient’s symptoms, physical examination, chest x- ray, CT scan and on occasion a bronchoscopy (viewing the inside of the lung with a tube and camera).

Prevention:

• Getting up and out of bed is often the best level of prevention
• Deep breathing (use your incentive spirometer to measure your lung capacity)
• Strong and effective cough
• Suctioning when needed
• Stop smoking
• Repositioning while in bed
• Take your breathing treatments and medications when they are ordered and scheduled

Treatment:

• Stop Smoking
• Take deep breaths
• Work on strengthening your cough
• Supplemental oxygen
• Suctioning to remove secretions
• Bronchoscopy if secretions or mucus plug cannot be removed with suction
• There are many treatments and medications that help prevent atelectasis. Nebulizers with bronchodilators such as albuterol can open airways and help with secretion mobilization. Your physician and Respiratory Therapist will decide which options are best

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Revised: 1/2015

atelectasis | medical disorder | Britannica

atelectasis, derived from the Greek words atelēs and ektasis, literally meaning “incomplete expansion” in reference to the lungs. The term atelectasis can also be used to describe the collapse of a previously inflated lung, either partially or fully, because of specific respiratory disorders. There are three major types of atelectasis: adhesive, compressive, and obstructive.

Adhesive atelectasis is seen in premature infants who are unable to spontaneously breathe and in some infants after only a few days of developing breathing difficulties; their lungs show areas in which the alveoli, or air sacs, are not expanded with air. These infants usually suffer from a disorder called respiratory distress syndrome, in which the surface tension inside the alveolus is altered so that the alveoli are perpetually collapsed. This is typically caused by a failure to develop surface-active material (surfactant) in the lungs. Treatment for infants with this syndrome includes replacement therapy with surfactant.

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Compressive atelectasis is caused by an external pressure on the lungs that drives the air out. Collapse is complete if the force is uniform or is partial when the force is localized. Local pressure can result from tumour growths, an enlarged heart, or elevation of the diaphragm. The ducts and bronchi leading to the alveoli are squeezed together by the pressure upon them.

Obstructive atelectasis may be caused by foreign objects lodged in one of the major bronchial passageways, causing air trapped in the alveoli to be slowly absorbed by the blood. It may also occur as a complication of abdominal surgery. The air passageways in the lungs normally secrete a mucous substance to trap dust, soot, and bacterial cells, which frequently enter with inhaled air. When a person undergoes surgery, the anesthetic stimulates an increase in bronchial secretions. Generally, if these secretions become too abundant, they can be pushed out of the bronchi by coughing or strong exhalation of air. After abdominal surgery, the breathing generally becomes more shallow because of the sharp pain induced by the breathing movements, and the muscles beneath the lungs may be weakened. Mucous plugs can result that cause atelectasis. Other causes of obstruction include tumours or infection.

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The symptoms in extreme atelectasis include low blood oxygen content, which manifests as a bluish tint to the skin, absence of respiratory movement on the side involved, displacement of the heart toward the affected side, and consolidation of the lungs into a smaller mass. If a lung remains collapsed for a long period, the respiratory tissue is replaced by fibrous scar tissue, and respiratory function cannot be restored.

Treatment for obstructive and compressive atelectasis is directed toward removal of any obstruction or compressive forces.

90,000 Emperor’s mind in the face of space censorship – News – IQ Research and Education Portal – National Research University Higher School of Economics

First short

Laureates were the living classic, the famous British physicist and mathematician Roger Penrose with the official formulation “for the discovery that the formation of black holes is an unobjectionable consequence of general relativity.”Penrose will receive half of the award this year. The other half will be awarded to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez “for the discovery of a supermassive compact object in the center of our Galaxy.”

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All three Nobel Prize winners in physics this year have been recognized for their discoveries related to one of the most unusual phenomena in the universe – black holes.Roger Penrose showed that, according to the postulates of the general theory of relativity (GR) of Albert Einstein, the formation of such superdense and supermassive objects, whose gravity is so great that even quanta of light cannot leave them, is inevitable in the Universe. And Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Gez discovered an invisible and extremely heavy space object affecting the orbits of stars in the center of our Galaxy. As it turned out later, it was just a supermassive black hole – about four million solar masses, collected in a region of space not exceeding the size of the solar system.

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According to the wishes of Nobel himself, the prize is awarded for a discovery or invention, that is, for something practical. Therefore, speaking about the winners of this year, we must start with two people – Reinhard Gentzel and Andrei Gez. They proved the existence of a huge black hole at the center of our Galaxy. Scientists have studied the motion of stars close to the black hole for 20 years, which allowed them to determine its gravitational field and mass with amazing accuracy – four by ten to the sixth power, that is, four million times the mass of the Sun.Moreover, their calculations were made not only in the first approximation (according to the law of Newton or Kepler), but also with a correction for the theory of relativity – the displacement of the perihelion of Mercury.

Well, since the topic of black holes arose, the classic Roger Penrose was added to it for proving that a black hole is typical in Einstein’s equations. His really outstanding work is related to the singularity theorem, which has not yet been discovered. The Nobel committee slightly changed his merits and brought astrophysicists to this pair.Although Penrose undoubtedly deserves a Nobel Prize.

Penrose mathematically showed that singularities always form in Einstein’s theory. The question is – is it related to something real in nature? So far we have not seen such singularities. They are inside black holes, but we can only see their “surface”, which is very weakly curved. Now, if we found the primary background of gravitational waves, which the inflationary theory predicts, then we would really find something close to the singularity and could prove Penrose’s mathematical result.

What is it about?

The possibility of the existence of black holes is probably the strangest consequence of the general theory of relativity. When, in November 1915, Albert Einstein first publicly presented its basic postulates, he thereby turned over all ideas about space and time that existed before him. General relativity offered completely new foundations for understanding the nature of gravity, which forms our entire Universe, as well as a completely practical tool that today serves, for example, to ensure the accuracy of GPS navigation.

How does general relativity help to establish global positioning systems?

Surprisingly, general relativity also helps in solving quite applied problems. Most cars, planes and ships now use the Global Positioning System (GPS). It consists of satellites flying at an altitude of about 20,000 km. At any given time, at least four satellites are visible from any point on Earth. All satellites carry on board atomic clocks that run with an accuracy of one nanosecond.The GPS receiver determines its current position by comparing time signals from different satellites. This achieves amazing positioning accuracy of 5 to 10 meters in just a few seconds. But to ensure it, the incoming time signals from satellites must be known with an accuracy of 20-30 nanoseconds.

The problem is that the orbits of the satellites are located at a great distance from the Earth, where the curvature of space-time is less than on the surface of our planet. According to general relativity, the clock speed, located closer to a massive object, will be slower than those that are farther from it.Therefore, clocks on satellites run faster than similar clocks on Earth – they are in a hurry 45 microseconds a day. However, an observer on Earth sees satellites in motion, which means, according to the special theory of relativity (SRT), the onboard clocks on them should be delayed by about 7 microseconds per day compared to the Earth’s ones due to the relativistic time dilation. The sum of the two effects gives an error of 38 microseconds per day, or 38,000 nanoseconds, which would result in a positioning error of 10 km. GPS engineers had to take this error into account and slow down the atomic clock before launching satellites, as well as lay algorithms for calculating relativistic effects in GPS receivers.

Einstein’s theory described how everything in the Universe is in the continuous grip of gravity, which holds the Earth, controls the orbits of the planets around the Sun and the star itself around the center of the Milky Way. Gravity, according to Einstein, sets the space of the Universe and affects the flow of time. Large masses bend space and slow down time, and extremely huge masses are even capable of “cutting out” and encapsulating it – to form a black hole.

Gravity is difficult to understand mathematically, but fairly easy to imagine.Imagine a large, round drum with fabric stretched on one side. It is completely flat and smooth. This is space-time. Put a small and light metal ball closer to the borders of the resulting circle of fabric. Almost nothing has changed, the tightly stretched surface easily holds it. Now place a large and heavy iron ball in the very center of the fabric. It bends the surface downward, distorting geometry and creating curvature. Due to the resulting curvature (funnel), the small ball gradually rolls to the center and “attracts” to the large one.This is gravity. In general relativity, it is defined as the effect of this kind of curvature of space on objects. And the more massive the body that creates curvature, the greater the gravity.

Gravity is responsible for the birth of stars from clouds of interstellar gas, but it can also lead to their death due to collapse. Actually, this is why the existence of black holes is one of the consequences of the general theory of relativity (GR). Their first theoretical description was given by the German astrophysicist Karl Schwarzschild just a few weeks after Einstein’s speech.

From the point of view of astrophysics, black holes are the last stage in the evolution of giant stars. When all the nuclear fuel of a star burns out, then it no longer has energy left to withstand its own gravity. As a result, the star collapses into a very dense and compact object – a singularity. The density and gravity are so great there that even light cannot leave it. Therefore, the singularity cannot be seen or recorded by any radio astronomy method.Because of this, in 1969, American physicist John Wheeler proposed the term “black hole” to denote it. It is possible to detect such objects only by the effect that their monstrous gravity has on adjacent celestial bodies. In 2019, astrophysicists managed to obtain the first digital photograph of a black hole “shadow”.

Strictly speaking, the creator of general relativity himself did not believe until his death that there are such objects as black holes in the Universe, although he always noted that fantasy and imagination helped a lot in his theoretical constructions.However, in January 1965, ten years after the death of Einstein, then a young 34-year-old mathematician Roger Penrose proved “at the tip of the pen” that black holes really can exist, and also described their probable – and completely amazing, hard to imagine properties. For example, that in the center of black holes there is always a gravitational singularity – a region where the space-time continuum is so curved that it turns into infinity.

Singularity is even harder to imagine than gravity.But we’ll try. Let’s recall our previous example, but now instead of fabric, a fishing net in a small cage is stretched over the drum. Again – right in the center – place a heavy iron ball. The net under it bends slightly and goes down. Space-time behaves in the same way in the world around us, only on the condition that it is four-dimensional (three spatial dimensions plus time) – under the influence of heavy objects, it bends, and time slows down.

Next, we will again launch the lighter one in a circular path around the heavy iron ball.Due to the curvature of the surface of the network, it will gradually approach and roll towards the iron – the mass at this point will increase even more. When there are a lot of such balls, then our network in the center will not withstand – a hole will simply form there, and its constituent threads will break off – and at the same time go to infinity.

In the same way, the geodesic lines of our space-time in the singularity region are broken, and particles moving along them in a straight line, for example, photons of light, simply cease to exist.Actually, this was one of the phenomena predicted in that work by Roger Penrose – within the singularity, a geodesic incompleteness is formed, and with it the fate of the particles is cut off. Therefore, nothing can escape from the black hole, not even photons of light. And because of this, the familiar laws of physics within the singularity cease to work.

In addition, a little later, in 1969, Penrose introduced the “principle of cosmic censorship.” According to him, gravitational singularities appear in places hidden from observers.”Nature abhors a naked [visible to an outside observer] singularity.” In black holes, it is always hidden behind the event horizon – the border of a black hole, beyond which nothing can already escape. There is even a special term for it – a sphere with a Schwarzschild radius. The higher the mass of the black hole, the larger the diameter of this sphere. For a black hole with a mass of one Sun, the diameter of the event horizon will be almost three kilometers, but if the mass is equal to the Earth, then only nine millimeters.

A little deeper into theory and observation

Penrose’s article was foundational. Until now, it is considered the most important contribution to the development of general relativity, in addition to the work of Albert Einstein himself. However, in order to prove the existence of black holes for a long time – as a stable cosmological process, Penrose had to develop new mathematical concepts and methods.

For the first time a mathematical model of collapsing stars was developed in the late 1930s by physicist Robert Oppenheimer, who headed the famous “Manhattan Project”, which was engaged in the creation of the atomic bomb.According to his calculations, giant stars – thousands of times larger than the Sun – at the moment of the final burnout of nuclear fuel, explode in a supernova explosion, and then abruptly collapse into a superdense compact lump of the remaining matter, so heavy that its gravity begins to powerfully pull everything around.

The idea of ​​such “dark stars” existed long before general relativity – from the end of the 18th century. So, in the works of the British mathematician John Michell and the famous French scientist Pierre Simon de Laplace, objects similar to black holes were hypothetically described.Both researchers argued that they are so heavy and dense that they should be invisible due to the absence of any radiation from them.

A century later, after the publication of the postulates of general relativity by Einstein, some solutions for especially complex equations in his constructions again led to the inevitable existence of such “dark stars” in the Universe. However, before Penrose’s work in the 1960s, all these solutions were considered purely theoretical speculations, a mathematical epiphenomenon, and even describing the ideal situation in which the stars and the black holes formed from them are absolutely spherical and symmetric.But in nature there are no such perfect objects, and only Penrose managed to find a solution that describes collapsing matter in all its imperfections.

Penrose prompted the discovery in 1963 of quasars – the brightest space objects. By that time, for more than 10 years, astronomers had been intrigued by the mysterious radio source 3C 273 in the constellation Virgo. Thanks to electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum, scientists were finally able to pinpoint its location – the radio source was quickly identified with a star-shaped object 2.44 billion light-years from Earth.Because of what it got its name – quasar or “star-like radio source” (from the English quas i-stell ar – “quasi-stellar” or “star-like” and r adiosource – “radio source”) …

A new question immediately arose – if the light source is so far away, but at the same time so intense, then it is equivalent in luminosity to at least several hundred galaxies. Where does this energy come from? In addition, following 3C 273, astronomers quickly discovered other, even more distant quasars, the radiation from which arose at the dawn of the evolution of the Universe.So where could it come from then? There could be only one answer – such incredible energy at that time and for such small bodies as quasars could be provided only by one process – the intensive pulling of matter into a supermassive black hole.

But how can such unusual objects form at all? What are the real conditions and prerequisites for their appearance? All these questions plagued young Roger Penrose. At the time, he was Professor of Mathematics at Birkbeck College, University of London.And the answer came by accident in the fall of 1964 while walking with a colleague through the rainy streets of London.

As Penrose later recalled, they interrupted the conversation when they crossed the roadway – and at that moment an idea flashed in his mind. Returning home in the evening, he immediately transferred it to paper. Captured surfaces is what should explain everything. This is the very mathematical concept that will finally give the solution!

Mathematically, the captured surface is any spatial surface (topological sphere, pipe, etc.)with limited boundaries, and their area tends to decrease locally in any future direction, but has a double definition in relation to the past. It sounds extremely difficult, because it is a mathematical abstraction, but even here, although very conditionally, it can be imagined.

The trapped surface makes all beams point to the center, whether it bends outward or inward. It is like a Mobius strip, but the rays drawn from its outer surface will still collect in the center of the space formed by the strip, although in some segments the surface of the strip, as is known, will face outward.

“At some stage of this collapse, the beginning of which can be associated with the moment when the so-called escape velocity from the star’s surface reaches the speed of light, the zero-cones (see figure …) tilt“ inward ”so that the position of the most distant part of the cone of the future acquires a vertical position on the diagram, as shown in the figure. By drawing envelopes for such cones, it is possible to define a three-dimensional surface, called the event horizon, within which all the bodies in the star begin to “fall”… It follows from this slope of the zero cones that the world lines of any particle or light signal that arise inside the surface corresponding to the event horizon can never “break out” beyond its limits, since crossing the horizon means violation of certain restrictions. In addition, if we trace (back in time) the movement of a light ray entering the eye of some external observer (located very far from the starting point), then we note that this ray cannot cross the event horizon in the opposite direction, that is, inside from the outside “

Roger Penrose Cycles of Time, p.106-107.

Using the concept of trapped surfaces, Penrose was able to prove that a black hole always hides a singularity, the boundary where time and space end. Its density is infinite, and there is still no theory in physics to explain such a strange phenomenon. Trapped surfaces have become a central concept in Penrose’s work on proving the singularity theorem, and the topological methods he introduced are invaluable for studying our curved universe.

The most intriguing moment in all Penrose’s constructions is that if the collapse once started and the captured surface has formed, then nothing can stop this process.There is no way to reverse the collapse. Metaphorically, the irreversibility of collapse was explained by another Nobel laureate, astrophysicist Subramanian Chandrasekhar, who once told a story from his childhood in India: “Dragonflies live in the air, and their larvae are under water. And each larva, before spreading its wings, promises to return to its brothers and tell about life on the other side of the reservoirs. But as soon as the larva emerges to the surface and flies away, then it finally becomes a dragonfly and there is no turning back.Underwater larvae will never be able to hear the story of life in the air. ”

Likewise, matter crosses the black hole event horizon in only one direction. Time replaces space there, and all possible paths lead only inward and inward. The stream of time captures and carries everything to the inevitable end at the singularity. But the end itself drags on forever. If you fall through the event horizon of a supermassive black hole, you won’t feel anything. No one will be able to see from the outside how you fall into the endless dark abyss, but this fall itself will now last forever.

How did you study it?

Although we are not able to look into black holes (and it is unlikely that we will ever succeed at all), nevertheless, astrophysicists are able to describe their properties, observing how their colossal gravity affects the motion of neighboring stars. Thus, Reinhard Gentzel and Andrea Gez, who headed two separate groups of astronomers who were simultaneously studying the center of our Galaxy, discovered one of them.

The Milky Way is a flat disk about 100,000 light years across.It consists of interstellar gas, dust, and several hundred million stars. And only one of them is our Sun.

From the point of view of an observer on Earth, huge clouds of interstellar gas and dust obscure most of the visible light coming from the center of our Galaxy. Infrared and radio telescopes have allowed astronomers to see through the galactic disk and detect the stars at its center for the first time. By exploring their orbits, Henzel and Gez have provided the most compelling evidence that an invisible supermassive object is hiding at the heart of the Milky Way.

Physicists have suspected that a black hole may be hiding in the center of our Galaxy for half a century. After the discovery of quasars, the general consensus was that black holes are likely to be found at the center of almost all large galaxies. However, no one could explain how galaxies and their black holes were formed, weighing from several million to many billions of solar masses.

A hundred years ago, the American astronomer Harlow Shapley was the first to determine the center of the Milky Way in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius.As a result of later observations, astronomers discovered a powerful source of radio waves there, which they called Sagittarius A *. In the late 1960s, it became clear that Sagittarius A * does indeed occupy the center of the Milky Way, around which the orbits of all the stars in our Galaxy lie.

But it was not until the 1990s that larger telescopes and newer equipment made it possible to systematically investigate Sagittarius A *. Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Gez launched their research projects to try to see the heart of the Milky Way through the dust clouds.Together with their scientific groups, they developed and improved observation methods, creating unique instruments and completely devoting themselves to many years of research.

The breakthrough was achieved only with the largest telescopes in the world. After all, the main principle of astronomy is that the more, the better! German Reinhard Genzel and his team originally used the New Technology Telescope (NTT) at the Chilean observatory of La Silla. They later deployed the Very Large Telescope (VLT) at the Paranal Observatory on Cerro Paranal Mountain (2,625 m above sea level).Equipped with four separate monolithic mirrors 8.2 m in diameter, it still has the highest resolution in the world.

In parallel, in the United States, Andrea Gez and her team are stationed at the Keck Observatory, at the peak of the Hawaiian mountain Mauna Kea (4,145 meters above sea level). The telescope mirrors there have a diameter of almost 10 meters and were the largest in the world before the launch of the Large Canary Telescope in 2007. Each mirror there is like a honeycomb, consisting of 36 hexagonal segments that can be controlled separately to better focus the light from the stars.

However, no matter how large the telescopes are, there is always a limit to their resolution. The fact is that we essentially live at the bottom of the atmospheric ocean, almost 100 km deep. And many large air bubbles above telescope mirrors, which are slightly colder or warmer than the environment, act as lenses, refracting light passing through them. This distorts the overall picture, which is why, for example, it seems to us that the stars twinkle, and their image is often blurry. Only the advent of adaptive optics helped to largely remove the problem – now the telescopes are equipped with a thin additional mirror that compensates for air turbulence and corrects the distorted image.

What have you found?

For nearly thirty years, Reinhard Henzel and Andrea Gez have been tracking the stars in the center of our Galaxy. Gradually, they learned to determine the position of the luminaries as accurately as possible, fixing their position for thousands of nights.

Then the researchers selected about thirty of the brightest from the entire set of stars. After analyzing the data on them, astronomers have found that within a radius of one light month from the center of the Milky Way, stars move as quickly as possible.Moreover, inside the indicated space, they perform an intricate dance, reminiscent of the flight of a swarm of bees. At the same time, stars outside this region were moving in their usual elliptical orbits without any anomalies.

Even more surprising, one star, known as S2 or S-O2, orbited the galactic center in less than 16 years. This is an extremely short time frame, which gave astronomers the ability to fully track its orbit. By comparison, it takes the Sun more than 200 million years to orbit the center of the Milky Way.Dinosaurs still ruled on Earth when our star began its current circle.

Any star moving in an elliptical orbit has a velocity vector. It consists of two components: radial and tangential velocities. Radial velocity is defined through the change in the distance between the object and the observer (on Earth) or as the speed of the object in the direction of the line of sight. The graph shows that the radial velocity of the star S2 increases when it approaches the object Sagittarius A * and decreases when it moves away from it in its elliptical orbit.

The Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet

Data from both groups were in good agreement with each other. The error has been ruled out. All empirical evidence said one thing – in the center of our Galaxy there should be a black hole equivalent in mass to four million solar masses, packed in a region of space no larger than the solar system.

What is it for?

Both discoveries are certainly as far as possible from the life of a common man in the street.Even to understand at an elementary, figurative level of Penrose’s constructions, remarkable imagination is required, and his mathematical calculations are within the power of only a few specialists. Nevertheless, these are the most fundamental and important achievements for humanity, although they will not help us in everyday life in any way.

Roger Penrose showed that the inevitable existence of black holes is a direct and indisputable consequence of the general theory of relativity, but at the same time, in the infinitely strong gravity of the singularity, this theory ceases to work.Therefore, now in the field of theoretical physics, intensive research is underway to create a new theory of quantum gravity. It should unite two pillars of physics: the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, which meet and disappear in the infinite depths of black holes.

At the same time, the observations of astronomers not only bring us closer to black holes, but, in fact, the pioneering work of Reinhard Gentzel and Andrei Gez showed that the human mind with the help of mathematics, pencil and paper is able to penetrate into such depths of the Universe, into which we and centuries later, we will not be able to look with the help of technology or tools.Mathematics and physical theory were so powerful that Einstein was able to predict phenomena – like black holes and gravitational waves – experimentally discovered only decades later.

In addition, observational astronomy posed many quite practical tasks for engineers, which led not only to scientific breakthroughs, but also to the development of technology in general, to the general progress of mankind. However, this utilitarian benefit should not overshadow the main thing – the enchanting and indescribable greatness of the cosmos, to which a handful of primates, living on the scale of the Universe only for a moment, have come closer than ever!
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90,000 The worst of the waves. What is known about the third wave of the epidemic in Russia | by Alexander Dragan

Such a sharp increase in severe patients in several regions at once confirms the evidence on the ground. And it also suggests that the new wave is actually heavier than the last two, the burden on health care is more serious, and the mortality rate will be higher.

“We have become a staging post on the way to the morgue”

“I don’t understand how so quickly? – says 38-year-old patient of the hospital in Krylatskoye.- I had a CT scan yesterday – it was 5 percent of the defeat. And now 65? ”

This is a characteristic feature of the new wave: the course of the disease has changed, the timing of deterioration has changed – often on the third day, CT-3 and even CT-4 develop. “ Covid has become more aggressive “. The temperature is much more difficult to get off. Shortness of breath increases rapidly. The cytokine storm is tougher. People don’t have enough oxygen.

In a personal conversation, the nurse of the St. Petersburg hospital admitted: “We have become a staging post on the way to the morgue.”If in the first waves it was possible to remove some of the patients with mechanical ventilation, now the mortality rate is approaching 100%. Now the disease is much more difficult, and young people end up in intensive care and in the morgue. In just one Saturday, 9 people died in one intensive care unit of one hospital with 18 beds. The youngest was 27. The oldest was 49. There were no vaccinated dead.

This is supported by evidence from other regions. From everywhere, doctors from the red zones say that the tried-and-tested treatment regimens no longer work, and the deterioration occurs rapidly – already by 4-5 days, many patients become severe. “Literally in a day, a person can go from a state of complete well-being to severe respiratory failure, requiring artificial ventilation of the lungs,” – reported from Khabarovsk.

“ The killer virus has become completely angry , – is written by the doctor from the red zone. – Previously, after removal of inflammation from the lung tissue, patients were quite successfully weaned from respiratory support. Respiratory support was in the form of masked, non-invasive mechanical ventilation.Now this often does not work and time does not heal, the virus does not let go, the patient requires invasion into the trachea. They put on the pipe and ventilate. The intensive care units are full, the patients are very serious, the disease has begun to affect the young, they are very sick and began to die. The virus mutated and became completely evil. ”

Testimony of Sergei Tsarenko, anesthesiologist-resuscitator of the Moscow City Clinical Hospital 52:

A tougher strain came, and thin, young, non-obese, seriously ill patients, and the disease proceeds much more severely, more rapidly.We have a classification – from KT1 to KT4. So, the patient goes this way often in several days.

Another certificate from the resuscitator of the St. Petersburg red zone (spelling and punctuation are preserved): “ This influx of patients is much worse and much heavier than in the first wave . The main clinical difference is the fulminant rather short terms. Come from KT2, in a couple of days huyak and KT-4, hello NIV or a tube into the trachea.In my opinion, the survival rate is significantly lower than the initial uhanka ”.

These are not the only signals. Here is the Lipetsk region: “If earlier pneumonia from CT-1 to CT-4 developed in 7-10 days, now this segment is shortened to 5-6 days.”

Says the head physician of the Moscow City Clinical Hospital No. 52: “Compared to the previous strain, the disease develops in 3-4 days and progresses just before our eyes. We no longer look after the dynamics of the development of the plot, but simply immediately turn on the heavy artillery. “

The same is reported from Tatarstan: “The virus has become less predictable, if earlier the deterioration of patients’ condition proceeded slowly, now they can literally jump from the stage of CT-1 to CT-2 and CT-3 in just a day.”

Another message from Tatarstan, where in just a week the number of occupied beds increased by 50%, and in some hospitals – by 90%: “Today the development of the disease is much faster: 3-4 days pass from the onset of the disease to complete damage to the lungs.” …

And here are the words of the head physician of the Yaroslavl City Clinical Hospital No. 9: “We see people who come with 10-15% lung damage, and despite the ongoing therapy on the second or third day, the increase is sometimes up to 80%.The current is lightning fast. ”

For 8 thousand kilometers from Yaroslavl, in Khabarovsk, they say the same: “ Now the disease proceeds in such a way that literally in a day a person can go from a state of complete well-being to severe respiratory failure, requiring artificial ventilation of the lungs” , – and this observation is noticed by doctors from dozens of other regions.

From the first symptoms to resuscitation – 4 days

An example of a 38-year-old singer MakSim is indicative: on June 11 she developed symptoms of a cold, on June 14 she performed at a concert in Kazan with a temperature of 39, and on June 15 – just four days after the appearance symptoms – wrote about lung damage 40% and suspected covid.On June 19, the singer was connected to a ventilator. A sharp deterioration in the condition occurred in a matter of days: between the first symptoms and the introduction into a coma – eight days. At the same time, already on the fifth, the singer had a serious lung damage. MakSim was not vaccinated: she did not have time.

Another example: animation director Svetlana Elchaninova died in Moscow at the age of 46 . On June 5-6, Svetlana also opened the animation film festival, on June 7 – she published a fresh photo on social networks, on June 9 she participated in the filming.Already on June 14, it became known that Svetlana was on ventilator with covid. Friends say: “at first I fell ill after the opening of the exhibition with pressure, I thought I was overworked”. On June 21, Svetlana Elchaninova died.

Cases are multiplying. On May 30, Yan Levin died – a famous Yaroslavl writer, historian and entrepreneur. “He got sick a week ago. On Tuesday he was taken to the hospital. Since Thursday in intensive care. Yesterday (May 29) – on non-invasive mechanical ventilation. Today he is gone, ”said Yan’s relatives. On May 22-23, Yang published photos and wrote notes, “even on May 22, they talked fervently, nothing indicated,” friends recall.”I burned out from covid in 5 days.” Jan Levin was 39 years old.

One of the leaders of the Sverdlovsk Ministry of Health, Sergei Taradai , burned down in a matter of a week and a half. Ten days was enough for Sergei’s lungs to practically collapse: the defeat reached 80%, he fell into a coma, and two days later he died. “Everything happened very quickly,” the doctors say. Sergei Taraday was 56 years old. No comorbid factors.

The head of the administration of the Vybsky district of the Leningrad region Ildar Gilyazov also died at the age of 56 – the course of the disease is rapid.When I got to the hospital, there was 40% of the lung damage – after three days it was already 95%, the official got on a ventilator, and a few days later he died.

56 years old – damn age. In Novosibirsk, 56-year-old pulmonologist Irina Irkhina died in a matter of days. “Until Friday [June 11] she worked, on Saturday and Sunday we were at home, on Monday-Tuesday she got sick, and didn’t go to work. On Wednesday I got to the hospital, Thursday-Friday – intensive care, ”recalls her husband. And on Saturday, June 19, Irina was gone.Less than a week from first symptoms to death.

Another story – from the Crimea: Elizabeth Bugay, a 26-year-old pregnant woman, and her premature daughter died here. It took 7 days from the first symptoms to hospitalization, but at the time of hospitalization, 80% of her lungs were already affected, and soon she was urgently intubated. Initially, the woman was denied hospitalization and was not given a referral for an X-ray – “it is harmful during pregnancy.”

Musician Pyotr Mamonov has a swift current .From the first symptoms to hospitalization with resuscitation and lung damage in 60%, some 5 days passed. The musician is on mechanical ventilation, his condition is extremely serious.

On July 5, director Vladimir Menshov died . His illness became known on June 26, but, according to media reports, the first symptoms appeared on June 21 – and soon after the onset of the disease, oxygen saturation dropped to 89, after which the director was hospitalized.

Sergei Boyko, a deputy of the Novosibirsk City Council, has a mother died. From the first symptoms to resuscitation – 4 days.Sergey wrote: “1 day – I cough a little; Day 3 – weakness, “no, no doctor is needed, I’ll just lie down”; Day 5 – unconscious, ambulance, saturation 62, hospital. ”

This is a characteristic pattern for the delta strain. Ancha Baranova, Doctor of Biological Sciences, professor at the School of Systems Biology at George Mason University (USA), explains it this way:

“The delta variant causes rapid consolidation of lung damage. That is, their function is now falling much faster than at the beginning of 2020.The patient is admitted to the hospital with CT-2 [second degree of lesion detected by computed tomography], tomorrow he has CT-3, and the day after tomorrow he is in intensive care.

Our lungs are lined with epithelial cells. If all of the epithelium from the lungs is stretched, it will cover an entire football field. These are specialized cells, which have a specific task – to carry out gas exchange, and for this it is necessary to maintain humidity. For this purpose, the cells of the alveoli produce a surfactant.

But these cells are flimsy.If you confuse them, for example, by putting them in a situation where they cease to understand where is the top and where is the bottom, then they will immediately stop producing this very surfactant.

And the next step – the cells generally turn into fibroblasts. In this case, they will no longer be able to produce anything good, except for pro-inflammatory cytokines and other dirty tricks. It looks like the delta variant of the coronavirus has learned to carry out this process very quickly. ”

Cemeteries run out of places

Another unpleasant consequence of the epidemic and specifically the third wave is the problem with cemeteries.The burden on ritual services has multiplied, and there is not enough land in cemeteries.

So, in the Ulyanovsk region in several cities at once the places in cemeteries are running out, and there is not enough budget for new ones.

The same is reported from Kaluga: there are almost no places left for new burials, the cemeteries are 99% exhausted, and they are burying close to the inter-quarter passageways.

In Buryatia, due to mortality records, morgues work around the clock, you have to wait a week for an autopsy, and there are not enough places in cemeteries: they have to be urgently expanded.

In St. Petersburg, places in cemeteries have almost run out, so most of the clients choose cremation – and the stoves cannot cope: every day hundreds of corpses are brought in, they accumulate. Earlier this was not the case, the staff of the crematorium say.

In some cities of Komi, places are also running out – there is nowhere else to bury, it is necessary to urgently expand the cemeteries. The same is happening in the Bryansk region: in some villages reserves are exhausted, cemeteries have to be expanded. The cemetery is being expanded both in Petrozavodsk and in Omsk – they also began to build a crematorium there due to a shortage of places.

In some regions, the problem with cemeteries is not new – they faced a shortage of places even after the last two waves of the epidemic. The third wave, obviously, will only aggravate the situation.

This is some kind of deja vu and another round – as if we were once again at the epicenter of the nightmare of last November. With one difference: this summer, contrary to expectations, may turn out to be much worse than last fall.

And not only because of the frenzied growth we faced. The severity of the disease has increased, and the age structure of the sick has also changed.

The virus is now killing both young people and children.

Above are many examples of people who died of impetuous covid at a young or middle age. These are not exceptional cases – this is a new unpleasant feature of the third wave.

Covid is younger. More and more young people fall ill, end up in hospitals, lie in intensive care units and die. And this is happening all over the country.

So, on June 12, the Moscow authorities said that in Moscow the proportion of young patients, from 18 to 35 years old, amounted to almost a third – this happened literally in the last two months.The Moscow headquarters wrote that people of middle and even young age became seriously ill.

“The main changes in the disease are age,” – says Ashot Poghosyan from the Moscow temporary hospital in Krylatskoye. Patients have become much younger: if before they were admitted mostly 50 and older, there were many 65+, now 18-year-olds and 20-year-olds are admitted to the hospital.

Natalya Shindryaeva, chief physician of polyclinic # 2, says that there are many young patients with extensive lung damage.

Valeriy Vechorko, head physician of the City Clinical Hospital No. 15, also noted that there were more young patients: the threshold dropped to 20 years, whereas before they were hospitalized at the age of 30-40 years.

Moscow infectious disease specialist shares: “The patients I have now are mostly young, that is, from 22 to 28 years old, probably somewhere, and there are quite a few of them compared to last year. The sick is definitely harder, just all over the place ”.

Maryana Lysenko, the head physician of the City Clinical Hospital 52: , says this: “The average age has changed by 15 years compared to the previous wave in the direction of decreasing.A significant trend towards 20-year-olds, 18-year-olds. ”

In the Moscow region, the structure of patients has also changed dramatically: now a third of those hospitalized are people under 50 years of age. Previously, the older generation was at risk, now the younger generation. According to the deputy chairman of the Moscow Region government, two-thirds of those hospitalized are under 60, and young patients are admitted to hospitals 15% more often.

In the Domodedovo Central City Hospital, half of the admitted patients are between the ages of 19 and 45, and of them “half of them literally on the first or second day needs artificial lung ventilation,” says the head physician of the hospital.The doctor of an ambulance near Moscow says: “The patients have become younger, and much younger. If not a single child was caught in the first wave, then during this period of time I have already taken two children with pneumonia at the age of four to five years. This is not to mention the fact that there are many young people from 20 to 40 years old, and many are difficult. ”

In St. Petersburg, according to the governor, young people make up “a significant proportion of patients in serious condition.” The head of the komzdrav notes that the proportion of patients aged 20-40 is “significantly higher than in the first and second waves” – and many young people now get on mechanical ventilation.

And in Buryatia, they report how the covid has grown younger: more than half of the patients and patients in the ICU are people under 65. “Now, at all ages, the incidence is practically equal,” says the head of Buryatia. Children, adults and the elderly also get sick. “Covid already touches everyone, he is not divided by age.”

And here are the calls from Karelia: “The infection itself has changed – now more often than before, young people get sick. There are more patients who have no concomitant pathology. ” The main increase in severe cases in the third wave is due to patients aged 27–45 years.

A doctor from the Tyumen region wonders why no measures are taken or restrictions are not introduced: “Earlier, severe patients with concomitant diseases were admitted to hospitals: asthma, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity. Now these are people aged 35-40 years. ”

An increase in the number of young patients is noted in the Vologda Oblast: “Basically, these are people quite young, 30-50 years old, and the majority of them are in a serious condition.” “ We haven’t had anything like this yet. ”.In the region as a whole, the number of hospitalized under 30 years old increased by 3.7% compared to November peaks, and the number of patients between 30 and 50 years old has doubled – now the average age of patients has dropped to 50 years.

In Crimea, the number of seriously ill patients under 40 is also growing. In the Tver region, the incidence among young people has increased dramatically – and they “are increasingly being admitted to hospitals with a severe course of the disease.” The same is in Smolensk: the young population now comes in “with a severe course of infection, and they need intensive care.”

A new age structure among hospital patients is also noted in the Orenburg region: now middle-aged people are sick more often. In the Yaroslavl region, more and more patients of young and middle age – with all complications, are admitted to hospitals and absolutely healthy, without risk factors. In the Bryansk region, there are many severe cases in patients under 45 years of age. In the Novosibirsk region, they note something “which has not been seen before”: severe cases among 18- and 20-year-old patients and an increase in young patients.In Tatarstan, too, “the bank has gone to the younger generation.” The same is in Bashkiria.

The head of the ICU at the Penza hospital says: “If for us last year, when patients aged 37–40 years old were admitted, it was nonsense, then in this case patients come from 29 years old, and the patients are in a very serious condition”.

Many more young patients are hospitalized in the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

In Krasnodar, they report: “Previously, we did not have such a situation that 50% of those hospitalized were people between the ages of 18 and 45.Now that’s the way it is. ”

In Primorye, every seventh patient in hospitals is under 40 years old, every fifth patient is from 40 to 60.

In the Kaliningrad region, “hospitals are filled with young people”.

The head physician of the Samara Kovidny hospital says that “now the virus has reached the youth” – if in the first and second waves there were elderly patients, now they are young, and among them there are very serious ones, both 20- and 30-year-olds.

In the Saratov region, the number of patients under 60 has sharply increased – there are already 60% of them.And if before there were practically no hospitalizations and severe cases among young people, now they often end up in hospitals at 40, 30, and even 20 years old. “Now we see young people in beds and in intensive care units,” they say in the Orenburg region.

In the Tyumen region, hospitalizations of young people aged 25-35 with extensive lung damage have increased. The same is happening in North Ossetia, and in the Nizhny Novgorod region, and in the Belgorod region, and in the Kuzbass, “and young people get sick in a different way.”This happens everywhere: on Sakhalin, in Khakassia, in the Altai Territory, in Primorye, in the Omsk Region, in Kaluga, in Irkutsk, in the Smolensk Region, Tula, Leningrad, Penza, Volgograd, Murmansk, Novgorod, Kurgan, Kaliningrad regions – from everywhere, from each region such messages can be found.

The first alarms came from Yakutia. Already in May, the region noted that children were getting sick more often. On May 9, the Minister of Health of Yakutia talks about an increase in children in hospitals with covid (two were already on mechanical ventilation), on May 10 in Yakutia, they report that for the first time they opened additional beds for a children’s infectious diseases hospital.On May 21, Yakutsk reported that children and pregnant women began to get sick: in the last two waves, sick children accounted for 5-6% of adults, in the third – five times more, already 25%.

By mid-June, despite the end of the school year and a sharp decline in contacts between children, the situation remained the same: until now, almost a quarter of all cases in Yakutia are children. For comparison: in Moscow – one of the few regions with relatively honest statistics and free testing – children historically accounted for about 7-8% of the total number of cases.

By the beginning of July, the situation had only worsened. “If earlier there were 1–2% of children in hospitals, now it is 10%, and in some areas even more. The consequences are also getting worse ”, – the head of Yakutia said in early July.

Yakutia was the first – but not the only one.

In mid-June it became known that an additional hospital for children was opened in Buryatia, the region that is currently experiencing the strongest outbreak in Russia. The head of Buryatia admits: “More children are sick in this wave.We have 50 children in hospitals. Including newborns. ”

At that time, 2339 beds were occupied in Buryatia. 50 children is 2.14%. For comparison: in mid-November, at the peak of the second wave, only 26 children were in hospitals in Buryatia (out of 2210 hospitalized) – this is 1.18% of all hospitalized, almost half the number.

New places for children are being developed not only by Buryatia. A reserve hospital for children was also opened in Novokuznetsk: now they will be taken to a neighboring city.Children are more likely to get sick and often end up in the hospital, and the course of the disease has worsened: if they previously tolerated mild covid, now they are increasingly being admitted to hospitals. The same thing is happening in Novosibirsk: here, too, the children’s hospital will be redesigned as a covid hospital for children. In Transbaikalia, a new hospital was also deployed, including with additional children’s beds, and a few days later the mono-hospital was expanded and more beds were added.

In the Irkutsk region, beds for children were forced to expand: the block in the children’s hospital was closed to accommodate newborns with covid – “ the region faced this for the first time ”.For the first time, a specialized covid department for children was also opened in Khabarovsk.

In the Novosibirsk Region, – the only region that regularly publishes data on hospitalized adults and children – has also seen a sharp increase since the beginning of a new wave. Even in autumn, the proportion of children in hospitals did not exceed 1.4% in the peak week. In a new wave, their number and share is growing sharply – and if in late May-early June children accounted for 0.5% of hospitalized patients, then in the last two weeks their share has grown to 2-2.5%, and this is twice the average indicator for autumn.And the absolute number of hospitalized children has already exceeded the autumn peaks by a quarter:

Da Bump – Redman – lyrics and translation of words, listen online for free

Original rude bwoy … on your scene

Haha, ha ha ha!

Everybody light your blunts, get your smoke on

Hahah

All you bitches drop your drawers … witcha stinkin ass (stinkin ass)

Just roll that weed (roll that weed) just roll that weed (roll that weed)

Aiyyo, yes it’s me the MC Grand Royal

Spittin that Newcleus I suggest you Jams On It

I’m not a role model I cracks the Beck’s bottle

Smoke blunts, play pretty MC’s as sex models

So inhale exhale what you smell?

Derail the frail blind MC off my trail

If he use braille, see I never been touched

Regulate the street tactics then parlay in the cut

Uhhahhh, lay back and hit this while I shit this

Flip this , schizo ass flow at long distance

And plus I pack nine inches in my britches

And keep an instant lit for the funky ass bitches

Newark, New Jersey’s on the map,? comprende?

And confrontations start from the blunts and the Reme

And if an-y, MC out there wanna test

Call my boy Poppa C to put a slug in your vest

Chorus (from “Tonight’s Da Night”)

Check, I walk around the street with the black tec nine

By the waistline, kickin the hype shit

So turn the volume up a notch

And watch the ba-bump, ba-bump, make your speakers pop

Owwww, shit I’m just one hip nigga

Shit is off the hook when my crew is in the mixture

What I deliver, over tracks and rivers

Is making your lungs collapse and quiver, it’s the

PPP foundation in your ass

We be the bomb like that Oklahoma blast

Then outlast, a few clowns, sounds

Raps, stay bein the mack like Dru Down

Ask me what I smoke and I say, “It’s the method ! ”

Funk off the hook I leave shit disconnected!

What’s the name of that town rollin up trees?

Jersey smokin up the bom ba zee!

It don’t stop, you better move slowly

I make that chest wet and cozy

Then dip lowkey like OG’s

Then inject that antidote to make you OD

You know a better flower get the dough G and show me

I bet you I make em more pussy than Josie * meow *

And show em How High I am just from the nosebleed (How High)

I keep it Naughty By Nature

Kick that rugged shit that Maybelline couldn’t make-up, lace up

(Yeah Funk Doctor, represent one time for all the blunt smokers)

Smokin weed

(Yeah yeah, yeah yeah, it’s how we do)

Let me hear you go ooooohhhh! (ooooohhhh!)

Smoke lalala (smoke lalala)

Let me hear you go ooooohhhh! (oooohhhhh!)

Smoke lalala (smoke lalala)

Funk Doctor, got your ass locked down proper

Let me next blast derelicts, binaca

I’mma Star at War, smoke blunts, don’t Chew-bacca

The head banger boogie for the marijuana shoppers

Lace the tracks with stacks of artifacts

Make the police arrest me for givin the cardiac

Cause I’m the shitter, headbanger non-quitter

Twenty blunt a day nigga , Landcruise whipper

I represent, commence to beat an instrument

Who’s next to get that ass bent ten percent

I make you boo pass off your jewels you lose cause

(I am so cool … cool … cool …)

React opponent, I Got Five On It

Met some hoochie, now I got fifty-five on it

With two Coronas, I dominate my opponents

To the hardcore niggas, keep on! (motherfucker)

lyrics Da Bump

The original rude guy… on your stage.

Ha ha ha ha ha!

Everybody light your joints, blow up the smoke!

Haha!

All you bitches put your panties down … stinky ass (stinky ass)

Just roll this weed (Roll this weed) just roll this weed (Roll this weed)

Hey yeah it’s me MC Grand Royal,

Spittin that Newcleus, I offer you jams on it.

I’m not a role model, I crack a bottle of Beck’s,

I smoke joints, I play cute MCs like sex models,

So inhale, exhale, how do you feel?

Get off my trail, weak blind MC.

If he uses Braille, look I was never touched, adjusting street tactics and then wager in the cut, lean back and punch while I chop it off, ShIZO, butt flows a long distance, and plus I pack nine inches in my pants and keep the blink of an eye for the funky Newark, Newark, NJ bitches on the map? comprend?

And confrontation begins with bluntness and Rem.

And if uh, uh, um wants to check,

Call my boyfriend Poppa C to put a bullet in your vest.

Chorus (from “Tonight”)

Check it out, I walk down the street with black tech nine

Down the waist, kick the hype.

So turn the volume up a notch

Above and watch bump bump -bump, make your speakers clap.

O-O-O, shit, I’m just one hip nigga,

Shit got off the hook when my team’s in the mix.

What I deliver is on the rails and rivers,

Makes your lungs collapse and shake, that’s the base

PPP in your ass,

other.

Ask me what I smoke and I will say, “this is the method!”

Funk off the hook, I leave the shit off!

What is the name of this city that falls asleep with trees?

Jersey smokes Bom Ba Zee!

Don’t stop, better move slowly.

I make the chest wet and cozy,

And then I put it down like OG,

And then I inject the antidote so that you OVERDOSE.

You know the flower better, take the loot and show me.

I bet I make them more pussy than Josie * meow *

and show them how high I am from just nosebleeds (how high)

I keep him naughty by nature

Kicking that rude shit Maybellin can’t do, lace up.

(Yes, funky doctor, I imagine once for all stupid smokers)

I smoke weed.

(Yes, yes, yes, yes, that’s exactly what we do)

Let me hear you go, ooohhh! (Ooohhhhh!)

Kuri lalala (Kuri lalala)

Let me hear you go, ooohhhh! (ooohhh!)

Kuri lalala (Kuri lalala)

Funk Doctor, I locked your ass under lock and key.

Let me blow up the abandoned next time, Binaka,

I’ll be a war star, smoke shoals, don’t chew Bakka.

Boogie cutthroat for marijuana buyers,

Lace up footprints with a bunch of artifacts,

Make the police arrest me for being heart,

Cause I’m a shit, headbanger, not throwing,

Twenty stupid, a day Land Cruise Whipper.

I imagine, start banging the device,

Who’s there to get that ass bent ten percent.

I make you give up my jewelry that you are losing because

that (I’m so cool… cool … cool …)

React opponent, I have five on it,

Met some whoo, now I have fifty-five on it

With two crowns, I dominate my opponents

In front of the tough niggas, carry on! (bastard)

90,000 16 deaths, 1,671 new cases / Article

CONTACTS

Information about the coronavirus and epidemic in Latvia can be obtained by dialing toll-free number 8345 (around the clock).
For all non-emergency questions regarding the Covid-19 coronavirus, you can call the Center for Disease Prevention and Control ( 67387661) on weekdays from 8:30 to 17:00, on weekends the phone is closed . If a Latvian who has been in contact with a patient with Covid-19 and is in quarantine has symptoms that make it possible to suspect Covid-19, you need to call 8303 from 9:00 to 18:00 on weekdays, from 9:00 until 15:00 on Saturdays and from 9:00 to 12:00 on Sundays.
All information about Covid-19 in Latvia is collected on a special website, which also has a Russian version .

All messages
on topic “ Coronavirus Covid-19 ”

1267 people were not vaccinated or did not complete the course of vaccination, 404 were vaccinated. Moreover, more new cases per day from the beginning of the pandemic were recorded only once – 1861 on December 31 (15% of 12395 tests were positive). This was the peak of the previous wave.

16 deaths are reported: two in the 50-59 and 60-69 age groups, three in the 80-89 and 90-99 age groups, six in the 70-79 age group.

Share of positive tests – 7.7%. The incidence rate (the number of new cases per 100 thousand people in two weeks) is 680.5 cases.

The historical maximum was recorded on January 10 (694).

To date, the average number of deaths per day over a seven-day period is 9.6. The peak number was recorded on January 11 – an average of 24 deaths per day.

Over the past seven days, 67 deaths were recorded. The total number of victims of the disease is 2773.

A total of 139 people died in September, 23 in August, 43 in July, 137 in June, 245 in May, 232 in April, 281 in March, 423 in February, 560 in January people, in December – 429.

Over the past day, 101 patients were admitted to hospitals with a diagnosis of Covid-19. In total, 653 patients with coronavirus are undergoing inpatient treatment, of which 66 are in serious condition.

Since the beginning of the epidemic, a total of 164801 positive “covid” tests have been registered.

Over the past two weeks, 12884 people were infected. The mark of 11,000 cases was overcome by infection on October 3, 10,000 – October 2, 9,000 – September 30, 8,000 – September 28, 7,000 – September 24, 6,000 – September 19, 5,000 – September 14, at 4,000 – September 9.

The flow of people hospitalized with coronavirus is sharply increasing, the largest hospitals in Latvia are heavily loaded, and this makes one think about introducing an emergency regime in them. And the reason is not even the lack of beds themselves, but the personnel, told the head of the Latvian Society of Hospitals Evgeniy Kaleis.

As Rus.LSM.lv already wrote , in a number of hospitals an internal emergency mode has been introduced since the beginning of September. This means reduced availability of planned treatment. Since the end of September 90,059, priority in hospitals has been given to 90,060 patients in need of emergency medical care, in an acute condition and sick with Covid-19.

This academic year, avoiding “remoteness” in schools is a clear directive of the Ministry of Education and Science, therefore, despite the sharp increase in the incidence of Covid-19, everything will be done to ensure that schools continue to work full-time, said in an interview with LTV, Minister of Education Anita Muizniece (National Association ).

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90,000 Post-privacy and ubertransparency. Trends that have changed modern architecture

As you walk past a hotel on Rivington Street in the heart of Lower Manhattan, New York in the morning and look up from the windows of fresh baked goods and falafel, you can – if you look up just above the first floor – greet a hotel guest lathering himself in the shower and separated from you only by panoramic window glass.The Standard Hotel in Soho, located directly above the famous High Line Promenade, attracts its guests with such extraordinary frankness and open-plan bathrooms open both into the living space and the cityscape. Here we went even further, having opened to street onlookers everything that usually happens behind blank walls – the cabins of public toilets on the 18th floor of the building are also separated from the street only by absolutely transparent glazing systems with a height of 3 meters. The once prim United Kingdom is keeping up with the global trend – however, in one of the most high-tech hotels in the UK, London’s Eccleston Square Hotel, you can afford a little privacy.You will not be asked to take a bath in public. And even a companion will not be obliged to observe your hygiene procedures: press a button and the glass between the bedroom and the toilet will become frosted.

Public toilets booths on the 18th floor of The Standard Hotel in Soho, New York, are separated from the street only by completely transparent glass systems with a height of 3 m

The boom of ubertransparency has reached the Celestial Empire. The transparency of the personal and public life of its own citizens there will be ensured by an open system of social rating, about which a lot has been written even without us.But guests of the Chinese capital may also face a special approach to privacy – the Renaissance Beijing Capital hotel of the Marriott chain offers guests not only all possible amenities for a comfortable stay, but also hospitably open bathrooms behind glass membranes. Openness is so openness!

In the wake of the hospitality industry, private residences are increasingly being equipped with open air, light and casual rooms, which until recently were rather secret.Let us remember how the architects revealed a rather interesting and broad theme “Housing for All” at the World Architecture Festival in Berlin in 2016. The main question that arose then among the visitors of the exhibition grounds and among the guests of panel discussions was “who are they? is this “everything”? In some cases, the opaque term “everyone” hid those vaguely defined masses that need social housing, in others – this euphemism referred to a relatively small category of consumers, able to fork out for an architect and acquire exclusive residences.In the latter case, the authors proposed projects that would be happy to place specialized glossy magazines on their pages – a luxury condominium in Malaysia or a residential complex on the banks of a river in Brazil. Less brilliant, so-called social facilities were mostly presented in lecture format as part of the evening program.

Winner House – Completed Buildings at The World Architecture Festival 2016. studioMilou architecture, private villa 33 Holland Park, Singapore

In order to understand the background of such a division, it is worth paying attention to the linguistic features in the descriptions of these projects.The main, if not the main difference between the group vocabulary is as follows: in reviews of projects for wealthy segments of the population, the authors emphasize such features as privacy and inviolability of private life. For the second group, fundamentally opposite definitions are often chosen, which describe “community”, “community” (as the principle of coexistence of individuals in the system), “community”. Thus, the picture is as follows: luxury villas are unambiguously praised for their isolating qualities, while housing “for all” is offered to be appreciated for some idyllic communal life.

Luxurious villas are unambiguously celebrated for their insulating qualities, while “for all” housing is offered to be appreciated for some idyllic communal life

An example of a differentiated approach is the City Hyde Park residential complex on the shores of Lake Michigan in Chicago, designed by the Studio Gang Architects team. One of the large-scale facades of the building is designed in the form of a cellular structure with balconies deliberately embedded in the neighbors’ “private space”.According to the authors, such a decision is intended to strengthen socialization and enhance communication between neighbors. This is difficult to imagine in areas built up with private villas or in luxury residential complexes intended for those with more impressive financial resources. Let’s take a look at one of the loudest and most expensive residential developments completed this year. Designed by Zaha Hadid Architects, it is directly above the High Line Promenade at 520 West 28th Street, named for its location in Chelsea, New York.All descriptions of the complex emphasize two of its characteristics – luxury and privacy: For residents, the complex is all about privacy and exclusiveness. The privacy of the inhabitant of the fantastic apartments is only emphasized by the prices – real estate prices here start at $ 5 million. Pay attention to the solution of the facade mesh – graceful contours of balconies and loggias guarantee safety from neighboring curiosity.

Needless to say, privacy is your personal secret, your right to privacy guaranteed by the constitution – architecture, one of whose most important functions is protection, can be ignored in some cases. What happens to architects and why do customers agree with such proposals? And in the end, is this very privacy an inalienable right or a privilege backed by finances? Let’s try to figure it out.

City Hyde Park Residential Complex in Chicago, Studio Gang Architects.The facade of the building is designed as a honeycomb structure with balconies deliberately embedded in the “private space” of neighbors

Wall as a metaphor

Try to start thinking about privacy without mentioning the wall in your speech. Shielding, protecting, limiting and delineating your freedom, it acts as a symbol of security and autonomy, and in other cases – a metaphor of dependence and slavery. Be that as it may, it is the wall that offers a substrate for learning and studying the value of private life and, in fact, privacy.In his reflections, he praised the role of the hole in the wall at the beginning of the 20th century. German sociologist and philosopher Georg Simmel: “The wall is mute. The door speaks. ” For Simmel, the door is the promise of bodily freedom. But in just a century, the aspirations of physical freedom will be replaced by meditations on the topic of completely different freedoms – virtual and transcendental. This transition will no longer make a door, but a window and a niche in the wall with new fundamental spatial metaphors that will allow reaching a new level of awareness of the transparency of the individual and private life as a political value of the new time.

“The wall is mute. The door says “

Georg Simmel, Sociologist and Philosopher

Georg Simmel, sociologist and philosopher

The transparency of private and public life today is the very essence of modern architecture with its transparency and weightlessness, with its attraction to light and air in the interior spaces of residential buildings and offices. The window today is the wall itself, which, according to Andrea Mubi Brigenti, professor of sociology at the University of Trento, has become part of the technological ensemble of urban public space, created in order images “.Now the walls are no longer silent. A hundred years after Simmel, even they have found eloquence thanks to advertisements, graffiti and LCD panels. And what, in this case, do the windows say to those who look into them? And can we avoid this look by closing the curtains?

Windows that we do not select

Much has been written about the scandal that erupted after the Facebook data breach and the role of this information in manipulating the opinion of voters around the world by the British company Cambridge Analytica.And just as much has been written about the connection between Big Data technology and the inevitable decline in privacy. In an interview with Radio Liberty, Michal Kosinski, former deputy director of the Center for Psychometry at Cambridge University, and now an assistant professor at Stanford University in the United States, spoke about how the system developed by him and his colleagues at Cambridge, based on user activity on the Web, makes a detailed psychological portrait of him. … At the same time, she not only describes certain character traits, but is able to calculate his gender, sexual orientation, skin color, political views and much more from what the user himself would probably prefer to keep with himself.

“It is better to take care that the world becomes a favorable environment for a person deprived of privacy”

Michal Kosinski, Associate Professor, Stanford University

Head On, installation by Chinese artist Tsai Guoqiang for a solo exhibition at the Solomon Guggenheim Museum in Berlin (2015)

Answering a journalist’s question about the potential danger of this system, Kosinski says: “You know, I am a scientist, I do psychometrics, I am not an expert in politics, democracy and freedom, but I think we will have to accept the fact that there will be no privacy left.Instead of getting involved in another battle for privacy, it is worth recognizing that the war has already been lost, and it is better to take care that the world becomes a favorable environment for a person deprived of privacy. ”

Beate Ressler, Professor of Ethics, University of Amsterdam

Beate Ressler, professor of ethics and its history at the University of Amsterdam, in his monograph “The Value of the Private” stresses that the boundary between the private and the public is conditional and is not rooted in the anthropological characteristics of a person, but in social conventions.This means that it can change. At the same time, Ressler distinguishes three dimensions of privacy, considered from the point of view of the law, – local, associated with decision-making and informational. The first type has to do with the physical space in which a person lives, rests, can relax and recover. The second protects the person herself, the decisions she makes up to the choice of the church, political attachments or sexual practices. The third – information privacy – concerns the data created and stored by the subject, and his ability to control information about himself.The professor is convinced and insists that all three of these dimensions are “irreplaceable, since without them essential aspects of our freedom and autonomy cannot be realized.”

The screens of computers and smartphones are the same windows through which persons interested in monitoring and evaluation peep into our houses, depriving us of our privacy

Winston Smith at the diary, still from the movie “1984”. Great Britain, 1984 Director Michael Radford

The screens of our computers and smartphones are the same windows through which persons interested in control and assessment, that is, in the implementation of the functions of the state in the modern world, peep into our houses, depriving us of our privacy.What then happens to privacy? Along with the liberalist approach, to the last drop of blood defending our freedom and privacy as the main value, there are new forms of publicity and new forms of privacy associated with modern urbanism and the new disciplinary context generated by it.

Hitchcock’s Window and Orwell’s Niche

The process of changing attitudes towards personal space and privacy can be easily illustrated using the fundamental metaphors of window and niche already mentioned.These are simple and even primitive constructive elements of the artificial environment, these are parts of the wall as a protective mechanism, simultaneously symbolizing shelter and the possibility of realizing bodily freedom. Let’s remember how these metaphors were reflected in popular culture. In 1949, George Orwell published his dystopian novel 1984, about the deeply structured world of Oceania, in which power and pleasure of any kind are held by members of the all-powerful elite Inner Party. The protagonist of the novel Winston Smith, whose monumental canvas of suffering is written by Orwell, belongs to the “middle stratum of society” – the Outer Party, even below which lies a powerless and seemingly gray mass of proles, enjoying the luxury of freedom of expression that is not available to the higher “castes” »The state.The protagonist of the dystopia is distinguished from all this nightmare by a happy architectural deviation from the standard – a niche in the wall of his otherwise absolutely typical concrete apartment, which was once intended for bookshelves, was accidentally left unoccupied, and now serves Smith at the same time as a refuge from the monitor, the all-seeing gaze of Big Brother , and an alcove, which contains a “surprisingly beautiful thing” – a notebook in which Winston keeps a diary, thus committing a criminal offense.We become witnesses of an amazing fact – a diary, an act of creation through the word, gives rise to the rudiments of critical thinking in the depths of Smith’s mind, clouded by the totalitarian system of mind, evokes in him the desire for freedom and autonomy and, finally, pushes the hero to resistance to lies and violence, conformism, dullness and mutual “Comradely” supervision.

The diary, the act of creation through the word, engenders in the depths of Smith’s mind the beginnings of critical thinking, evokes in him the desire for freedom and autonomy

The ingenious director “Windows to the Courtyard” creates the basis for the so-called Neighborhood Watch.Pictured – James Stewart as Jeffries

Five years after the publication of 1984, Alfred Hitchcock’s Courtyard Window will be released in theaters, which will also raise the subject of citizen surveillance. Through the window of his own apartment in New York’s Greenwich Village, the protagonist Jeffries spies on his neighbors with an almost criminal pleasure. A former war correspondent working for glossy magazines, he finds himself confined to a wheelchair. Jeffreys seems to replace his work as a cold-blooded documentary reporter with an excitement of curiosity for other people’s secrets that are hidden behind the external goodness and decency of the petty bourgeois.

Apple Park Campus, Steve Jobs’ last major project, designed by Norman Foster

Hitchcock not only paints a portrait of the observer, but forces us – the audience – to become almost accomplices of this surveillance, offering together with the main character to look for irrefutable evidence of the crime committed on the screen. Historian and media specialist Anna Friedberg, in her works on visual theory, introduces the concept of “mobilized virtual gaze”, which transforms the viewer in the hall from a passive observer into an active participant in events.This paradox is explained by the director’s intention with the help of technical means to rebuild our view and forget about the ephemeral and unreality of what is happening. The giant screen expands the space, everything around is many times larger than the viewer, the figures on the screen rise above the spectators. Psychoanalyst and film theoretician Viktor Mazin emphasized: “When the image is large, I am small, and this intensifies the process of film identification.”

Christian Dior: “My dresses are ephemeral pieces of architecture.” The picture shows Grace Kelly in a Dior dress created for the movie “Courtyard Window”

It should be remembered here that Friedberg emphasizes the influence of the entertainment culture of cinema on the entertainment culture of city showcases, the transparency of the glass of which carries the citizen into a speculative, little controllable reality of consumption created by someone else.The ingenious director of “Yard Window” not only creates the basis of the so-called “neighborhood watch” – what, almost 50 years later, political philosopher Jody Dean in his work “The Secret of Publicity” will call the “Little Brothers” movement, no less dangerous than Orwell’s Big … At the same time, Hitchcock calmly records the process of “domestication”, the domestication of a former military man. Jeffries’s beloved Lisa (played by Grace Kelly) is not only a model of glossy magazines, but also a true icon of the consumer society, whose portrait was successfully emphasized by Christian Dior with luxurious toilets in the New Look style, which was iconic for that period.In the interpretation of Hitchcock, Lisa clearly demonstrates a different quality of life of a sedentary, full-fledged city dweller compared to the “nomadic” habits of a single reporter – instead of bad coffee and dull ham sandwiches, she serves Jeffries a sumptuous dinner brought from the best New York restaurant … And she happily shares his enthusiasm untangling a detective ball. This is where all the power of a special American consumer culture is manifested, in which duty and pleasure, war and peace, freedom and security, private and public are fused in one cauldron.

“Niche” self-awareness of fiction and the Manet window

The English and American literary historian Ian Watt argues that modern man was born out of fiction, which was invented by the middle class in European culture in the 18th century. The diary and the epistolary genre that forged Chinese and Japanese cultures in the early Middle Ages, just some 300 years ago, provided the European bourgeoisie with that inner space for the act of deep self-knowledge that we can observe in Orwellian Winston Smith.It is important here that the very practice of writing and keeping diaries requires solitude – they are implemented in those very protected spaces of alcoves, allowing you to focus on self-contemplation and self-development. From here it is only a step to the so-called critical thinking and spiritual emancipation, allowing to outline clear boundaries between the private and the public.

The diary gave the bourgeoisie an inner space for the act of self-knowledge that we see in Orwellian Winston Smith

Ian Watt argues that modern man was born out of fiction, which was invented in European culture by the middle class in the 18th century.
Pictured: François-André Vincent, portrait of Pierre-Jean-Baptiste Choudard, 1789

The industrial revolution of the 19th century gave a powerful impetus to rapid urbanization and resulted in a whole bunch of hitherto unknown social norms in the liminal realm of private and public. Citizens from different strata of society, in the process of commodity exchange or floating along wide boulevards and embankments, were to receive a new code of conduct, which was formed in the form of a special “art of discretion” – the secular skill of lowered gaze, humility and apparent self-immersion, allowing them to exist in a crowd with relative comfort strangers.The Olympia, which glorified Manet, aroused open hatred not by its seemingly shameless nakedness, but by its direct and firm gaze into the eyes of the viewer through the frame symbolizing the window to her bedroom. This audacious act of self-presentation, raised by the artist to a degree and inscribed by him in the cozy twilight of his familiar bourgeois apartment, anticipated the method of psychological exposure of a patient on a couch in the quiet of private rooms, discovered by Sigmund Freud, to get rid of neurotic symptoms of inability to adapt in society.

Edouard Manet, Olympia, 1863 A daring act of self-presentation, raised by the artist to a degree and inscribed in the cozy twilight of a familiar bourgeois apartment

Wall Fall

The transatlantic transition of modernism, which was born in the Old World as a movement glorifying the beauty of asceticism, marked a new interpretation of the boundaries of the private and the public. The ideas of American democracy, freedom and prosperity shook the excessive Spartan restraint out of Weimar design and crowned the Bauhaus ideas with the comforts of post-war life in the New World.The enthusiastic revisionist gaze of the spouses Charles and Ray Eames helped bring a reflection of their personal happiness to the architecture of the home life of a thriving middle class.

In The Courtyard Window, we perceived the blind blinds that appeared on the windows of Jeffries and Lisa’s neighbors as dense covers of shameful bodily secrets. The happy union of the Eames unties their hands so much that in their marriage the perimeter of a bright and joyful life excludes any shame. The couple’s Los Angeles home is an authentic anthem to the fall of the wall! They manifest their joy radiating through the almost absent, ephemeral contours of the glass box, as if asserting: if someone is watching us from the outside, if this is the gaze of the state, then it means a warm fatherly supervision, guarding a presence, but not an act of control.There is no longer a secret alcove in the Eames house.

Charles and Ray Eames in the 1940s.

The happy union of the Eames unties their hands so much that in their marriage the perimeter of a bright and joyful life excludes any shame

House of Charles and Ray Eames in the suburbs of Los Angeles was constructed in 1949 as part of the Case Study Houses program initiated by Arts & Architecture Magazine

The legendary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe went even further with this emphasized architectural self-presentation.The master’s modernist masterpieces force the inhabitants of his glass boxes to try on the role of Olympia Manet, with shameless frankness accepting the views from the outside and with the same courage return the “mobilized virtual gaze” back. Here, the expansion of private space behind the disappearing walls of the house becomes absolutely obvious – now both the courtyard and the garden are seen as private, which communicate with the open plan of interiors thrown open to the outside. This interpenetration makes van der Rohe’s buildings almost unbearably sensual.As a result, the transparency and post-privacy of American modernism acquire the status of self-sufficient architectural values ​​of a free democratic society.

Van der Rohe’s masterpieces force the inhabitants to try on the role of Olympia Manet, with shameless frankness taking views from the outside and with the same courage returning them back

Mies van der Rohe with a model of Crown Hall, Chicago, 1955

New media ecology

Political philosopher Jody Dean, whom we have already mentioned in the context of the supervising “Little Brothers”, somehow called Donald Trump “the president of Twitter”, whose appearance became possible as part of the implementation of the concept of “communicative capitalism” described by Dean, when the meaningful value of any message becomes less important than its exchange value.In an interview, Jody explains it this way: “My friend works at Google. So you know what they found out there? It was during the elections … They found out that lies spread faster than the truth. Partly because there are people who rush en masse to deny false information, which instantly creates a double wave of circulation of lies. ”

Jody Dean, political philosopher

“Publicity is something we cannot avoid”

Jody Dean, Political Philosopher

Thus, the truth about you and your privacy also fall in price.”Publicity is something we cannot avoid,” says Dean. “It stains everything and makes democracy collapse into a state of banal circulation of slogans, memes and images.” Gilles Deleuze paints the new media ecology with the blackest colors in his work “Society of Control. Post Scriptum “. He argues that disciplinary societies that incessantly produce blank walls of spaces of isolation (here he cites a replica of the heroine of Rossellini’s film Europa ’51, who exclaims at the sight of workers at the factory: “I am convinced that I am watching prisoners!”) a society of control, the main mechanism of which allows one to obtain information about the position of each element in open space at any given time.

“Glass office” of Soho China in Beijing. Design: Aim Architecture, 2013

In such systems, it is no longer the bounding walls that are important, but the membrane portals that take this into account. Those very “talking” doors of Georg Simmel. Constructed somehow imperceptibly for ourselves, communicative capitalism gently pushes us to an unheard-of level of transparency in every aspect of our existence, narrowing the area of ​​privacy to a scanty, small and uncomfortable niche. Everything else is public.

/ Published in Pragmatika Volume # 02, June 2018/

(PDF) PRACTICAL MITOCHONDRIOLOGY

103

Conductivity of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Apparently, EDTA removed Mg2 + ions from some

places on the inner membrane with a high affinity for magnesium. As a result, the integral protein

changed its conformation and opened the pore for protons and, possibly, for K + ions. It is not yet

which protein is involved in this phenomenon.It is likely that the same protein

can participate in the regulation of the Ca-dependent permeability pore.

The first report on EDTA’s ability to increase respiration in MC-4 was presented in

2000 by Cadenas & Brand, 2000. These authors studied the effects of EDTA and Mg2 + on oxygen consumption

in MC-4, and concluded that it is Mg2 +, and not purine nucleotides (GDP, ATP and

ADP) control the proton conductivity of the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM).

Cadenas & Brand (2000) did not study changes in membrane potential, and

substrates other than succinate + rotenone were not used. It should be mentioned, however, that the proton intensity

BMM is in fact also controlled by ADP at the level of the adenine nucleotide transporter

(Panov et al., 1980). It is likely that this mechanism under physiological conditions plays more than

a significant role in the regulation of membrane potential through the conductivity of H + and K + ions than

Mg2 +, since its concentration is strongly buffered.

In the literature there are many examples of ill-considered use of EDTA, which led to

incorrect results. Sorgato et al. (1974) were among the first to study the production of

free oxygen radicals (IBR) by brain mitochondria. These authors concluded that in contrast to mitochondria of the heart and liver in

, brain mitochondria do not produce h3O2 or

superoxide radical (Sorgato et al., 1974). This erroneous conclusion slowed down for many years

the study of IBS production by brain mitochondria, which in fact are one of the

most important pathophysiological mechanisms for the development of neurodegenerative diseases

(Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, etc.)). Who in the “zravy

mind” would spend time studying what the researchers of one of the most respected

laboratories in the World, led by Professor Azzi, showed that it does not exist? Since

–

time, however, people have forgotten about this publication, but rather not even readers of it. Again, who

of the young and “smart” will read the “old” publications 10-20 years ago? However, I

read the article by Sorgato et al. (1974), and since I already had on hand the results of

experiments shown in Figure 7.2, then I immediately understood the reason for the negative

conclusion about the ability of the brain mitochondria to produce IBS. In the experiments of Sorgato et al.

(1974) the mitochondrial isolation and incubation medium contained 2 mM EDTA, and no Mg2 + was added

to the medium, but succinate was used as a substrate. As we will see later, in the mitochondria

of the brain (and not only), the main source of IBS is the reverse transfer of electrons. Since

in the presence of EDTA the membrane potential dropped by 30 mV, then during the oxidation of succinate there was no back transfer of electrons

and conjugate removal of CPA formation.However, in 1974 another

no one knew about the possible consequences of using EDTA, which were described above.

Therefore, the incorrect conclusion of Sorgato et al. (1974) is quite understandable and forgivable. After all, if you

work on the border of the unknown, then you inevitably find yourself in such situations. But in our time,

, when researchers ill-considered using EDTA and EGTA, such errors are already

unforgivable. And there are quite a few examples.But, I will not point a finger.

Important. The above example shows that the use of divalent

cation chelators should be thoughtful. If for some reason you need to use 0.5-1.0 mM

EDTA, for example, when water and chemicals are contaminated with Cu2 +, Zn2 + or Fe2 + ions, then it is enough

to add 0.5 mM MgCl2 to the isolation or incubation medium, and the “uncoupling” effect of EDTA at

mitochondria will be eliminated.

Dark energy, gravitational waves, pulsars and black holes.Familiar words? Space test from the editorial board of “Irkutsk Segodnya” – Taishet Segodnya

Dark energy, gravitational waves, pulsars and black holes. Familiar words? Space test from the editorial board of “Irkutsk Segodnya” – Taishet Segodny

World Space Week starts on October 4th. To mark this event, the editors “Irkutsk Today” prepared a quiz, thanks to which you can understand how much you understand our vast Universe

Space Quiz

Question 1 of 8.

First question

Inside the stars thermonuclear reactions take place with the release of energy, they are called nucleosynthesis. Due to the fusion of the nuclei of atoms of which element does the reaction occur in most stars?

The correct answer is hydrogen . Inside most stars, hydrogen nuclei merge. As a result, helium is formed and energy is released.

Question 2 of 8.

Second question

We know that the Universe does not stand still – it is expanding, while accelerating.What, according to scientists, makes her do this?

1. Dark Energy

2. Gravitational collapse

3. Dark matter

The correct answer is dark energy . Matter, which can be found in physical experiments, makes up an insignificant fraction in space, and the rest is dark energy and dark matter. According to the calculations of scientists, dark energy in the Universe is about 68%, it is she who is responsible for its accelerated expansion. Dark matter is involved in gravitational interactions. And gravitational collapse of occurs in stars with a mass of more than three solar masses. When a star runs out of fusion material, it collapses through rapid compression.

Question 3 of 8.

Third question

On September 14, 2015, the LIGO and VIRGO collaborations experimentally discovered something that Albert Einstein had predicted back in 1916.What is this?

1. Supermassive black hole Sgr A in the center of the Milky Way

2. Dione (satellite of Saturn)

3. Gravitational waves

The correct answer is gravitational waves . They were discovered on September 14, 2015, and told to the public on February 11, 2016. For the experimental detection of gravitational waves in 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. Supermassive black hole Sgr A in the center of the Milky Way was discovered back in 1974.And Dione was discovered long before the birth of Einstein himself, in 1684.

Question 4 of 8.

Fourth question

In addition to the Earth, there is another object in our solar system on which liquid surface lakes are located. What kind of object is it?

1. Planet Neptune

2. Titan (satellite of the planet Saturn)

3. Planet Venus

The correct answer is Titanium .Liquid surface lakes exist on it. By the way, Titan is the second largest natural satellite in our solar system, it is larger than the moon and even larger than the planet Mercury. At Neptune and Venus there are no liquid surface lakes.

Question 5 of 8.

Fifth question

String theory sometimes drives even those who are fond of cosmology crazy. But let’s not delve into the principles of the theory and answer only one question: at least how many dimensions does string theory imply? As a side note, we use three spatial dimensions — length, width, and height — and one temporal dimension to describe events.

The correct answer is 10 measurements . String theory assumes at least 10 dimensions, otherwise the theory simply won’t work. These measurements are invisible to us and undetectable

Question 6 of 8.

Sixth question

Let’s answer one more question about string theory. According to her, elementary particles are not points, but threads of energy, which are called quantum strings. They have a size, what is it?

The correct answer is 10 ^–33 cm .This is the smallest possible size of objects in the Universe, it is also called the Planck length

Question 7 of 8.

Seventh question

What type of stars does our Sun belong to in terms of spectral classification?

1. Red giant

2. White dwarf

3. Yellow dwarf

Correct answer: yellow dwarf . Yellow dwarfs have surface temperatures between 5300 and 6000 K.Their lifespan is 10 and more billion years. Our Sun is in the middle of its life, its age is approximately 4.3-4.6 billion years.

Question 8 of 8.

Eighth question

Well, in conclusion, the most important question that everyone should know, perhaps. How old is our Universe according to modern concepts, or rather, how many years have passed since the Big Bang?

1.13.799 billion years

2.10.827 billion years

3.21.395 billion years

The correct answer is 13.799 billion years . That is how long, according to modern concepts, the Universe exists, well, plus or minus 0.021 billion years.

Next question 1 of 8

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