How does the endocrine system work in tandem with the nervous system. What are the major endocrine glands and their functions. How do hormones affect human behavior and physiological processes.

The Endocrine System: A Crucial Communication Network

The endocrine system plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various physiological processes within the human body. Working in concert with the nervous system, it forms an intricate communication network that controls everything from metabolism and growth to mood and behavior.

How does the endocrine system differ from the nervous system? While both systems transmit signals throughout the body, the endocrine system relies on chemical messengers called hormones. These hormones are released into the bloodstream and travel to target tissues, where they bind to specific receptors to elicit a response. In contrast to the rapid, short-lived electrical signals of the nervous system, hormonal signals tend to be slower-acting but longer-lasting.

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

The endocrine system consists of several glands distributed throughout the body, each responsible for producing and secreting specific hormones. Let’s explore the main endocrine glands and their primary functions:

1. Pituitary Gland: The Master Regulator

Often referred to as the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and plays a crucial role in orchestrating the entire endocrine system. What makes the pituitary gland so important? It produces and secretes several hormones that control the functions of other endocrine glands, earning it the nickname “the conductor of the endocrine orchestra.” Additionally, the pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, which is essential for normal physical development.

2. Thyroid Gland: Metabolic Control Center

The thyroid gland, situated in the neck, is responsible for regulating metabolism. How does the thyroid affect our daily energy expenditure? It produces thyroid hormones that control the body’s metabolic rate, influencing how quickly we burn calories and use energy. An overactive or underactive thyroid can significantly impact weight, energy levels, and overall health.

3. Thymus: Immune System Support

The thymus, located in the upper chest, plays a crucial role in the development of the immune system. During childhood and adolescence, the thymus aids in the maturation of T-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections and diseases.

4. Adrenal Glands: Stress Response Regulators

Situated atop the kidneys, the adrenal glands are responsible for producing several important hormones. What happens when we encounter a stressful situation? The adrenal glands spring into action, releasing epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, which trigger the body’s “fight-or-flight” response. These glands also help regulate fluid and sodium balance in the body.

5. Reproductive Glands: Ovaries and Testes

The ovaries in females and testes in males are responsible for producing sex hormones. These hormones, including estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, play crucial roles in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive functions, and certain aspects of behavior.

6. Pancreas: Blood Sugar Regulation

The pancreas serves both endocrine and exocrine functions. Its endocrine role involves producing insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels. How does the pancreas maintain blood glucose balance? Insulin lowers blood sugar by promoting glucose uptake by cells, while glucagon raises blood sugar when levels drop too low.

7. Pineal Gland: Circadian Rhythm Regulator

The pineal gland, a small structure in the brain, produces melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and other circadian rhythms. It also plays a role in mood regulation and is involved in the onset of puberty.

Hormones: The Chemical Messengers of the Endocrine System

Hormones are the primary means by which the endocrine system exerts its influence on the body. These chemical messengers are secreted by endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to target specific tissues or organs. But how do hormones know which cells to affect?

The key lies in the concept of hormone specificity. Each hormone has a unique molecular structure that allows it to bind only to specific receptor sites on target cells. This lock-and-key mechanism ensures that hormones only affect the intended tissues, even as they circulate throughout the entire body.

The Endocrine System’s Impact on Behavior

While the endocrine system’s role in regulating physiological processes is well-established, its influence on behavior is equally significant. How do hormones shape our actions, emotions, and responses to the world around us?

Hunger and Thirst Regulation

The hypothalamus, a region of the brain that acts as a link between the nervous and endocrine systems, plays a crucial role in regulating basic drives such as hunger and thirst. Hormones like ghrelin and leptin, produced in the digestive system, communicate with the hypothalamus to influence our feelings of hunger and satiety.

Sexual Behavior and Arousal

Sex hormones, particularly testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone, play significant roles in sexual behavior and arousal in both men and women. These hormones influence not only physical sexual characteristics but also sexual desire and responsiveness.

Mood and Emotional Regulation

Several hormones impact our mood and emotional states. For example, serotonin, often called the “feel-good” hormone, plays a crucial role in regulating mood, anxiety, and happiness. Estrogen fluctuations in women can lead to mood changes, particularly during menopause, potentially causing low arousal, depression, and irritability.

Stress Response and Fight-or-Flight

The adrenal glands’ release of epinephrine and norepinephrine triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response, a crucial survival mechanism that prepares the body to respond to perceived threats. This hormonal cascade can lead to increased heart rate, heightened alertness, and a surge of energy – all of which can significantly impact behavior in stressful situations.

The Interplay Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems

While we’ve explored the endocrine system’s functions, it’s crucial to understand that it doesn’t operate in isolation. The endocrine and nervous systems work together to form a complex, integrated communication network within the body. This collaboration is particularly evident in the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, where the nervous system directly influences hormone production and release.

How do these two systems complement each other? The nervous system provides rapid, short-term responses to stimuli through electrical impulses, while the endocrine system offers slower but more sustained responses through hormonal signaling. This dual-system approach allows the body to respond effectively to both immediate challenges and long-term physiological needs.

Endocrine Disorders and Their Effects

When the delicate balance of the endocrine system is disrupted, it can lead to a variety of disorders with wide-ranging effects on health and behavior. Some common endocrine disorders include:

• Diabetes mellitus: A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels due to problems with insulin production or function.
• Thyroid disorders: Conditions such as hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can affect metabolism, energy levels, and mood.
• Adrenal insufficiency: A disorder where the adrenal glands don’t produce enough certain hormones, potentially leading to fatigue, weakness, and mood changes.
• Growth hormone deficiency: Can result in stunted growth in children and various metabolic issues in adults.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal disorder in women that can affect fertility, metabolism, and appearance.

Understanding these disorders highlights the critical role the endocrine system plays in maintaining overall health and well-being.

The Future of Endocrine Research and Treatment

As our understanding of the endocrine system continues to grow, so do the possibilities for new treatments and interventions. What advancements can we expect in the field of endocrinology?

Researchers are exploring targeted hormone therapies that could offer more precise treatments for endocrine disorders with fewer side effects. The emerging field of neuroendocrinology is shedding light on the complex interactions between the nervous and endocrine systems, potentially leading to new approaches for treating mood disorders and stress-related conditions.

Additionally, the role of environmental factors in endocrine function is gaining attention. How do substances like endocrine disruptors in our environment affect hormone balance and overall health? This area of study could have far-reaching implications for public health policy and environmental regulations.

As we continue to unravel the complexities of the endocrine system, we gain valuable insights into human physiology, behavior, and the intricate balance that maintains our health. The endocrine system, with its network of glands and hormones, remains a fascinating frontier in medical science, promising new discoveries that could revolutionize our approach to health and well-being.

The Endocrine System – Biological Bases Of Behavior

The endocrine and nervous systems work together to act as a communication system for the human body controlling homeostatic functions and behaviour.

The endocrine system acts as a communication tool within the human body, working in tandem with the nervous system to communicate with the body’s other internal systems. Both the nervous and endocrine systems send messages everywhere inside the human body some of these messages have an impact on behaviour.

Hormones are chemicals within the endocrine system that affect physiological activity. They are secreted by one tissue and conveyed by the bloodstream to another tissue. Hormones have high levels of specificity, which means they only react with certain receptor sites in the body. The best way to describe hormones is to think of a lock and a key: only a certain hormone (lock) can create a certain response within your body’s receptive tissue (key).

There are eight major endocrine glands, each with a different function.

– Pituitary gland: the “brain” of the endocrine system; regulates all seven of the other glands and secretes growth hormone.
– Thyroid: regulates a person’s metabolic rate, which is the amount of energy expended daily by a person at rest.
– Thymus: assists in the development of a person’s immune system.
– Adrenal gland: regulates fluid and sodium balance within the body, and secretes epinephrine (“adrenaline”) when the body is under stress, producing the fight-or-flight response.
– Ovaries (in females) and testes (in males): control the development of secondary sex characteristics.
– Pancreatic islets: regulate blood sugar.
– Pineal gland: regulates biorhythms and mood, and stimulates the onset of puberty.

The endocrine system affects behaviour by controlling key functions in the body. For example, the hypothalamus controls the basic drives for hunger, thirst and sexual attraction, determining behaviour and responses to stimuli. The testes secrete testosterone which in men and women is both linked to the sexual arousal. The hormone serotonin in the brain determines mood levels. Estrogen in females is important in the mood changes of women particularly in the menopause where it can cause low arousal, depression and irritability. The best example is secreted by the adrenal glands, norepinephrine and epinephrine are hormones which cause the body to initiate the fight or flight response causing fear and aggression.

Practice Questions

Khan Academy

Physiological stress response to cuss words

MCAT Official Prep (AAMC)

Biology Question Pack, Vol. 1 Passage 6 Question 37

Biology Question Pack, Vol. 2 Passage 13 Question 87

Sample Test B/B Section Passage 8 Question 41

Key Points

• The endocrine system acts as a communication tool for the human body, working in tandem with the nervous system to communicate with the body’s other internal systems.

• The endocrine system differs from the nervous system in that its chemical signals are slower-moving and longer-lasting.

• Hormones act as chemical messengers within the body, telling it to perform specific physical and mental functions.

• There are eight major endocrine glands, each performing a different function: the pituitary gland, the thyroid, the thymus gland, the adrenal gland, the ovaries (female) and testes (male), the pancreatic islets, and the pineal gland

• Hormones can alter human behaviour by driving survival functions (fight or flight) and processes such as hunger and excretion.

Key Terms

Epinephrine: (adrenaline) an amino acid-derived hormone secreted by the adrenal gland in response to stress

Hormone: a chemical that is made by specialist cells, usually within an endocrine gland, and it is released into the bloodstream

Endocrine system: the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate bodily processes

Gland: an organ that synthesizes a substance, such as hormones or breast milk, and releases it, often into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or on its outer surface

The Nervous System and the Endocrine System

Now that we have considered how individual neurons operate and the roles of the different brain areas, it is time to ask how the body manages to “put it all together. ” How do the complex activities in the various parts of the brain, the simple all-or-nothing firings of billions of interconnected neurons, and the various chemical systems within the body, work together to allow the body to respond to the social environment and engage in everyday behaviors? In this section we will see that the complexities of human behavior are accomplished through the joint actions of electrical and chemical processes in the nervous system and the endocrine system.

Electrical Control of Behavior: The Nervous System

The nervous system (see Figure 3.17 “The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System”), the electrical information highway of the body, is made up of nervesA bundle of interconnected neurons that fires in synchrony to carry messages.—bundles of interconnected neurons that fire in synchrony to carry messages. The central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain and spinal cord, is the major controller of the body’s functions, charged with interpreting sensory information and responding to it with its own directives. The CNS interprets information coming in from the senses, formulates an appropriate reaction, and sends responses to the appropriate system to respond accordingly. Everything that we see, hear, smell, touch, and taste is conveyed to us from our sensory organs as neural impulses, and each of the commands that the brain sends to the body, both consciously and unconsciously, travels through this system as well.

Figure 3.17 The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System

Nerves are differentiated according to their function. A sensory (or afferent) neuronA neuron that carries information from the sensory receptors. carries information from the sensory receptors, whereas a motor (or efferent) neuronA neuron that transmits information to the muscles and glands. transmits information to the muscles and glands. An interneuronThe most common type of neuron, responsible for communicating among neurons., which is by far the most common type of neuron, is located primarily within the CNS and is responsible for communicating among the neurons. Interneurons allow the brain to combine the multiple sources of available information to create a coherent picture of the sensory information being conveyed.

The spinal cordThe long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves and supporting cells that extends down from the brain. is the long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves and supporting cells that extends down from the brain. It is the central throughway of information for the body. Within the spinal cord, ascending tracts of sensory neurons relay sensory information from the sense organs to the brain while descending tracts of motor neurons relay motor commands back to the body. When a quicker-than-usual response is required, the spinal cord can do its own processing, bypassing the brain altogether. A reflexAn involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. Reflexes are triggered when sensory information is powerful enough to reach a given threshold and the interneurons in the spinal cord act to send a message back through the motor neurons without relaying the information to the brain (see Figure 3. 18 “The Reflex”). When you touch a hot stove and immediately pull your hand back, or when you fumble your cell phone and instinctively reach to catch it before it falls, reflexes in your spinal cord order the appropriate responses before your brain even knows what is happening.

Figure 3.18 The Reflex

The central nervous system can interpret signals from sensory neurons and respond to them extremely quickly via the motor neurons without any need for the brain to be involved. These quick responses, known as reflexes, can reduce the damage that we might experience as a result of, for instance, touching a hot stove.

If the central nervous system is the command center of the body, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the front line. The PNS links the CNS to the body’s sense receptors, muscles, and glands. As you can see in Figure 3.19 “The Autonomic Nervous System”, the peripheral nervous system is itself divided into two subsystems, one controlling internal responses and one controlling external responses.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS)The division of the PNS that governs the internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal. is the division of the PNS that governs the internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal. Many of the actions of the ANS, such as heart rate and digestion, are automatic and out of our conscious control, but others, such as breathing and sexual activity, can be controlled and influenced by conscious processes.

The somatic nervous system (SNS)The division of the PNS that controls the external aspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs. is the division of the PNS that controls the external aspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs. The somatic nervous system consists primarily of motor nerves responsible for sending brain signals for muscle contraction.

The autonomic nervous system itself can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (see Figure 3.19 “The Autonomic Nervous System”). The sympathetic division of the ANSInvolved in preparing the body for behavior, particularly in response to stress, by activating the organs and the glands in the endocrine system. is involved in preparing the body for behavior, particularly in response to stress, by activating the organs and the glands in the endocrine system. The parasympathetic division of the ANSTends to calm the body by slowing the heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from the activities that the sympathetic system causes. tends to calm the body by slowing the heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from the activities that the sympathetic system causes. The sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions normally function in opposition to each other, such that the sympathetic division acts a bit like the accelerator pedal on a car and the parasympathetic division acts like the brake.

Figure 3.19 The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: The sympathetic division acts to energize the body, preparing it for action. The parasympathetic division acts to calm the body, allowing it to rest.

Our everyday activities are controlled by the interaction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. For example, when we get out of bed in the morning, we would experience a sharp drop in blood pressure if it were not for the action of the sympathetic system, which automatically increases blood flow through the body. Similarly, after we eat a big meal, the parasympathetic system automatically sends more blood to the stomach and intestines, allowing us to efficiently digest the food. And perhaps you’ve had the experience of not being at all hungry before a stressful event, such as a sports game or an exam (when the sympathetic division was primarily in action), but suddenly finding yourself starved afterward, as the parasympathetic takes over. The two systems work together to maintain vital bodily functions, resulting in homeostasisThe natural balance in the body’s systems., the natural balance in the body’s systems.

The Body’s Chemicals Help Control Behavior: The Endocrine System

The nervous system is designed to protect us from danger through its interpretation of and reactions to stimuli. But a primary function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems is to interact with the endocrine system to elicit chemicals that provide another system for influencing our feelings and behaviors.

A glandA groups of cells that functions to secrete hormones. in the endocrine system is made up of groups of cells that function to secrete hormones. A hormoneA chemical that moves throughout the body to help regulate emotions and behaviors. is a chemical that moves throughout the body to help regulate emotions and behaviors. When the hormones released by one gland arrive at receptor tissues or other glands, these receiving receptors may trigger the release of other hormones, resulting in a series of complex chemical chain reactions. The endocrine system works together with the nervous system to influence many aspects of human behavior, including growth, reproduction, and metabolism. And the endocrine system plays a vital role in emotions. Because the glands in men and women differ, hormones also help explain some of the observed behavioral differences between men and women. The major glands in the endocrine system are shown in Figure 3.20 “The Major Glands of the Endocrine System”.

Figure 3.20 The Major Glands of the Endocrine System

The male is shown on the left and the female on the right.

The pituitary glandA small pea-sized gland located near the center of the brain that is responsible for controlling the body’s growth., a small pea-sized gland located near the center of the brain, is responsible for controlling the body’s growth, but it also has many other influences that make it of primary importance to regulating behavior. The pituitary secretes hormones that influence our responses to pain as well as hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women. Because the pituitary has such an important influence on other glands, it is sometimes known as the “master gland.”

Other glands in the endocrine system include the pancreas, which secretes hormones designed to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy; the pineal gland, located in the middle of the brain, which secretes melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate the wake-sleep cycle; and the thyroid and parathyroid glands, which are responsible for determining how quickly the body uses energy and hormones, and controlling the amount of calcium in the blood and bones.

The body has two triangular adrenal glands, one atop each kidney. The adrenal glandsProduce hormones that regulate salt and water balance in the body, and are involved in metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. produce hormones that regulate salt and water balance in the body, and they are involved in metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. The most important function of the adrenal glands is to secrete the hormones epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) when we are excited, threatened, or stressed. Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the sympathetic division of the ANS, causing increased heart and lung activity, dilation of the pupils, and increases in blood sugar, which give the body a surge of energy to respond to a threat. The activity and role of the adrenal glands in response to stress provides an excellent example of the close relationship and interdependency of the nervous and endocrine systems. A quick-acting nervous system is essential for immediate activation of the adrenal glands, while the endocrine system mobilizes the body for action.

The male sex glands, known as the testesThe male sex glands., secrete a number of hormones, the most important of which is testosteroneThe male sex hormone., the male sex hormone. Testosterone regulates body changes associated with sexual development, including enlargement of the penis, deepening of the voice, growth of facial and pubic hair, and the increase in muscle growth and strength. The ovariesThe female sex glands., the female sex glands, are located in the pelvis. They produce eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved in the development of female sexual features, including breast growth, the accumulation of body fat around the hips and thighs, and the growth spurt that occurs during puberty. Both estrogen and progesterone are also involved in pregnancy and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.

Recent research has pinpointed some of the important roles of the sex hormones in social behavior. Dabbs, Hargrove, and Heusel (1996)Dabbs, J. M., Jr., Hargrove, M. F., & Heusel, C. (1996). Testosterone differences among college fraternities: Well-behaved vs. rambunctious. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(2), 157–161. measured the testosterone levels of 240 men who were members of 12 fraternities at two universities. They also obtained descriptions of the fraternities from university officials, fraternity officers, yearbook and chapter house photographs, and researcher field notes. The researchers correlated the testosterone levels and the descriptions of each fraternity. They found that the fraternities with the highest average testosterone levels were also more wild and unruly, and one of these fraternities was known across campus for the crudeness of its behavior. On the other hand, the fraternities with the lowest average testosterone levels were more well behaved, friendly and pleasant, academically successful, and socially responsible. Banks and Dabbs (1996)Banks, T., & Dabbs, J. M., Jr. (1996). Salivary testosterone and cortisol in delinquent and violent urban subculture. Journal of Social Psychology, 136(1), 49–56. found that juvenile delinquents and prisoners who had high levels of testosterone also acted more violently, and Tremblay et al. (1998) Tremblay, R. E., Schaal, B., Boulerice, B., Arseneault, L., Soussignan, R. G., Paquette, D., & Laurent, D. (1998). Testosterone, physical aggression, dominance, and physical development in early adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22(4), 753–777. found that testosterone was related to toughness and leadership behaviors in adolescent boys. Although testosterone levels are higher in men than in women, the relationship between testosterone and aggression is not limited to males. Studies have also shown a positive relationship between testosterone and aggression and related behaviors (such as competitiveness) in women (Cashdan, 2003).Cashdan, E. (2003). Hormones and competitive aggression in women. Aggressive Behavior, 29(2), 107–115.

It must be kept in mind that the observed relationships between testosterone levels and aggressive behavior that have been found in these studies do not prove that testosterone causes aggression—the relationships are only correlational. In fact, there is evidence that the relationship between violence and testosterone also goes in the other direction: Playing an aggressive game, such as tennis or even chess, increases the testosterone levels of the winners and decreases the testosterone levels of losers (Gladue, Boechler, & McCaul, 1989; Mazur, Booth, & Dabbs, 1992),Gladue, B. A., Boechler, M., & McCaul, K. D. (1989). Hormonal response to competition in human males. Aggressive Behavior, 15(6), 409–422; Mazur, A., Booth, A., & Dabbs, J. M. (1992). Testosterone and chess competition. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55(1), 70–77. and perhaps this is why excited soccer fans sometimes riot when their team wins.

Recent research has also begun to document the role that female sex hormones may play in reactions to others. A study about hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning (Macrae, Alnwick, Milne, & Schloerscheidt, 2002)Macrae, C. N., Alnwick, K. A., Milne, A. B., & Schloerscheidt, A. M. (2002). Person perception across the menstrual cycle: Hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning. Psychological Science, 13(6), 532–536. found that women were more easily able to perceive and categorize male faces during the more fertile phases of their menstrual cycles. Although researchers did not directly measure the presence of hormones, it is likely that phase-specific hormonal differences influenced the women’s perceptions.

At this point you can begin to see the important role the hormones play in behavior. But the hormones we have reviewed in this section represent only a subset of the many influences that hormones have on our behaviors. In the chapters to come we will consider the important roles that hormones play in many other behaviors, including sleeping, sexual activity, and helping and harming others.

Key Takeaways

• The body uses both electrical and chemical systems to create homeostasis.
• The CNS is made up of bundles of nerves that carry messages to and from the PNS
• The peripheral nervous system is composed of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The ANS is further divided into the sympathetic (activating) and parasympathetic (calming) nervous systems. These divisions are activated by glands and organs in the endocrine system.
• Specific nerves, including sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons, each have specific functions.
• The spinal cord may bypass the brain by responding rapidly using reflexes.
• The pituitary gland is a master gland, affecting many other glands.
• Hormones produced by the pituitary and adrenal glands regulate growth, stress, sexual functions, and chemical balance in the body.
• The adrenal glands produce epinephrine and norepinephrine, the hormones responsible for our reactions to stress.
• The sex hormones, testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone, play an important role in sex differences.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

1. Recall a time when you were threatened or stressed. What physiological reactions did you experience in the situation, and what aspects of the endocrine system do you think created those reactions?
2. Consider the emotions that you have experienced over the past several weeks. What hormones do you think might have been involved in creating those emotions?

Evaluation of the function of the endocrine system | Northwestern Medical Center+ in Gatchina

Pituitary function assessment

Code	Designation	Price
100	Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin) (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, ACTH)	825 ₽
56	Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)	355 ₽
99	Growth Hormone (GH)	650 ₽
174	Somatomedin C (Insulin-like Growth Factor 1) (Somatomedin C, Insulin-like Growth Factor 1, IGF-1)	1,250 RUB
59	Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)	430 ₽
60	Luteinizing Hormone (LH)	475 ₽
61	Prolactin	455 ₽
6161	Macroprolactin*	$1. 370
1645	Melatonin, plasma (Melatonin, plasma)	2,200 RUB

Thyroid function assessment

Code	Designation	Price
56	Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)	355 ₽
54	Total Thyroxine (T4 total, total tetraiodothyronine) (Total Thyroxine, TT4)	465 ₽
55	Free thyroxine (T4 free) (Free Thyroxine, FT4)	420 ₽
52	Triiodothyronine total (T3 total) (Total Triiodthyronine, TT3)	465 ₽
53	Free Triiodthyronine (FT3)	435 ₽
1612	Triiodothyronine reverse (T3 reverse, Reverse Triiodthyronine).	5,680 RUB
196	Thyroxine-binding capacity (absorption of thyroid hormones; thyroxine binding index; free thyroxine index) (Thyroid Uptake, T-Uptake, Thyroxine-Binding Capacity, TBC, Thyroxine-Binding Index, TBI, free T4Index, fT4I)	700 ₽
197	Thyroglobulin (TG) (Thyroglobulin, TG)	845 ₽
57	Antibodies to thyroglobulin (AT-TG) (Anti-Thyroglobulin Autoantibodies, Thyroglobulin Antibodies, Tg Autoantibodies, TgAb, Anti-Tg Ab, ATG)	575 ₽
58	Antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (AT-TPO, microsomal antibodies) (Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase Autoantibodies, Antimicrosomal Antibodies, TPO Antibodies, TPOAb, Anti-TPO)	500 ₽
198	Antibodies to the microsomal fraction of thyrocytes (AT to the microsomal antigen of thyrocytes, AT-MAG, AMAT, thyroid antimicrosomal antibodies) (Anti-Thyroid Microsomal Antibodies)	535 ₽
199	TSH receptor antibodies (TSH binding inhibitor immunoglobulin, TBII)	1,630 RUB

Adrenal cortical function evaluation

Code	Designation	Price
65	Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) (Cortisol, Hydrocortisone)	475 ₽
178	Free cortisol, daily urine (Free Сortisol, Free Hydrocortisone, 24-Hour urine)	$1. 090
1508	Cortisol, saliva (Cortisol, Saliva)	600 ₽
205	Aldosterone	650 ₽
206	Renin (Direct Renin, Plasma)	$1.310
1302ARR	Aldosterone-Renin Ratio (ARR)	1,960 RUB

Androgenic status assessment

Code	Designation	Price
64	Testosterone	430 ₽
169	Free Testosterone	$1.205
168	Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (Dihydrotestosterone, DHT)	$1.515
195	Androstenedione	$1. 310
170	Androstenediol glucuronide (Androstanediol glucuronide) (Androstanediol Glucuronide, 3α-Androstanediol Glucuronide, 3α-diol G)	$1.390
101	Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S)	530 ₽
1602	Dehydroepiandrosterone (unconjugated)	$1.270
156	17-Ketosteroids (17-KS) in urine (17-Ketosteroids, Urine)	1,650 RUB
154	17-OH-progesterone (17-Hydroxyprogesterone, 17-OHP)	700 ₽
149	Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG)	525 ₽

Estrogens and progestins

Sex gland non-steroidal regulatory factors

Pregnancy monitoring, fetal biochemical markers

Code	Designation	Price
66	Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG, beta-hCG, β-hCG) (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, HCG)	395 ₽
189	Free β-hCG (free β-subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin) (Free Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, Free HCG)	795 ₽
207	Placental lactogen (Chorionic Somatomammotropin) (Placental Lactogen, PL, Human Placental Lactogen, hPL, Chorionic Somatomammotropin, CS, Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin, hCS)	$1. 010
161	Pregnancy-Associated Plasma Protein-A (PAPP-A)	845 ₽
134	Free estriol (Estriol Free, E3)	650 ₽
92	Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) (α-Fetoprotein, AFP)	525 ₽
PRS1	Maternal Screen, First Trimester; Prenatal Screening I; PRISCA I (Prenatal Risk Calculation))	1,640 RUB
CALCULATION PRISCA1	PRISCA1 calculation	110 ₽
PRS2	Maternal Screen, Second Trimester; Prenatal Screening II; PRISCA II (Prenatal Risk Calculation))	1,720 RUB
PRISCA2 CALCULATION	PRISCA2 calculation	80 ₽

Assessment of the endocrine function of the pancreas

Code	Designation	Price
172	Insulin	670 ₽
173	Proinsulin	$1. 105
148	C-peptide (C-Peptide)	545 ₽
11HOMA	Insulin Resistance Assessment: Fasting Glucose/Insulin, Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance, HOMA-IR	905 ₽
CALCHOMA-G	HOMA-G index calculation (when performing glucose from a gray tube)	45 ₽
CALCULATIONHOMA-IR	HOMA-IR index calculation	45 ₽

Biogenic amines

Code	Designation	Price
KATEPL	Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine) in blood plasma – KATEPL (Catecholamines: Epinephrine / Adrenaline, Norepinephrine / Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Plasma)	$2.565
151	Catecholamines (epinephrine/adrenaline, Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Urine) in urine	$2. 410
950	Catecholamines and Serotonin Metabolites, 24 Hours-Urine: Vanillylmandelic Acid, VMA, Homovanillic Acid, HVA , 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid, 5-HIAA)	2,770 RUB
1166	Metanephrines fractionated (metanephrine, normetanephrine), deconjugated (total), 24 Hour Urine)	2,770 RUB
152	Urinary Catecholamines (Epinephrine/Adrenaline, Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Urine)	$2.410
1270	Histamine in blood plasma (Histamine, Plasma)	$2.565
993	Serotonin in blood serum (Serotonin, Serum)	$2.565

Calcium-regulating hormones

Code	Designation	Price
171	Calcitonin	$1. 125
102	Parathyroid Hormone (Parathyroid Hormone, PTH)	825 ₽

Adipose tissue hormones

Regulation of erythropoiesis

prices in Moscow in the center “SM-Clinic”

Comprehensive laboratory diagnostics of the endocrine system allows you to pass all the necessary tests for the early detection of endocrinopathies and tracking the dynamics of their development. The patient can undergo a screening examination of their own free will to monitor their health status or as prescribed by a doctor if there is a suspicion of a disease.

The laboratory complex includes several analyzes aimed at assessing the metabolism of fats, proteins, carbohydrates, as well as determining the safety of the functions of the endocrine secretion glands (thyroid, pancreas, parathyroid, etc.).

SM-Clinic has developed special screenings to assess the functioning of the endocrine system. When passing tests within the complex, discounts apply. The patient saves not only money, but also his own time – the biomaterial for research needs to be submitted only 1 time.

Comprehensive laboratory diagnostics at SM-Clinic allows you to undergo a complete examination in a short time and get objective results. Based on the information received, the doctor selects the optimal tactics of prevention and treatment.

General information

Deadlines

1 visit to the clinic
Analysis execution time: 1-3 days

Study preparation

Not required

Contraindications

Doesn’t have

Additional Information

Services not included in the program are paid additionally in accordance with the current price list of medical services

Program content

Study of the main hormones (TSH, free T4, AT-TPO, AT-TG, parathyroid hormone)

Allows you to determine the functional state of the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands (normal, reduced, increased).

Determination of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-25 (OH)

Vitamin D is involved in metabolic processes, controls the level of a number of hormones. Vitamin D and its active metabolites are components of the hormonal system that regulates phosphorus-calcium metabolism, it affects the formation and functioning of the musculoskeletal system, participates in the activity of many body systems, in the development of skin and other diseases.

Study of glycosylated hemoglobin

Shows the level of sugar in the blood for a certain period.

Ionized calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Alkaline phosphatase

The studied indicators play an important role in the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates, and are involved in ensuring the normal functioning of many body systems.

Total protein, Total cholesterol, Alanine aminotransferase – ALT, Aspartate aminotransferase – AST, Triglycerides

Analyzes characterizing carbohydrate, fat, protein metabolism in the body.