What are the main functions of the pituitary gland. How does the pituitary gland maintain homeostasis. Which hormones are secreted by the anterior and posterior pituitary. How do pituitary hormones regulate various bodily processes.

The Pituitary Gland: Master Regulator of the Endocrine System

The pituitary gland, often called the “master gland”, plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions through hormone secretion. Located at the base of the brain, this small but mighty gland works in tandem with the hypothalamus to maintain homeostasis – the body’s internal balance.

How does the pituitary gland function? It acts as a control center, releasing hormones that signal other glands and organs to increase or decrease their activity. This intricate system allows the body to adapt to changing conditions and maintain optimal functioning.

Anatomy and Structure of the Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is divided into two main sections:

1. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
2. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Each section produces and secretes different hormones, working together to regulate multiple bodily processes. The anterior pituitary is responsible for producing six hormones, while the posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones and Their Functions

The anterior pituitary gland secretes six important hormones that regulate various bodily functions. Let’s explore each of these hormones and their roles:

1. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

ACTH plays a vital role in stimulating the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and aldosterone. How does ACTH affect the body?

• Regulates cortisol production, which influences blood sugar, blood pressure, and stress response
• Stimulates aldosterone secretion, aiding in fluid and mineral balance
• Helps the body cope with physical and emotional stress

During times of stress, ACTH levels increase, prompting higher cortisol production. Conversely, when stress levels are low, ACTH secretion decreases, leading to lower cortisol levels.

2. Growth Hormone (GH)

Growth hormone, as its name suggests, is crucial for growth and metabolism. What are the primary functions of growth hormone?

• Regulates metabolism and blood sugar levels
• Promotes growth during childhood and adolescence
• Influences body composition and muscle mass

GH secretion varies throughout life, with significant increases during puberty to facilitate growth spurts. After puberty, GH levels typically decline but continue to play a role in adult metabolism.

3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

FSH and LH are gonadotropins that regulate reproductive functions in both males and females. How do these hormones affect reproduction?

• In females: Control the menstrual cycle and support pregnancy
• In males: Stimulate sperm production and testosterone secretion
• Regulate the production of sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone)

The balance between FSH and LH is crucial for maintaining reproductive health and fertility in both sexes.

4. Prolactin (PRL)

Prolactin is primarily known for its role in milk production, but it has other functions as well. What are the main effects of prolactin?

• Stimulates milk production in lactating mothers
• Influences reproductive function and sexual behavior
• Plays a role in immune system regulation

While prolactin is essential for breastfeeding, abnormal levels can affect fertility and menstrual cycles in women.

5. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

TSH regulates the thyroid gland, which is crucial for metabolism and energy production. How does TSH affect thyroid function?

• Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
• Helps regulate metabolism, body temperature, and energy levels
• Influences growth and development

The balance of TSH and thyroid hormones is essential for maintaining overall health and well-being.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones and Their Roles

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus:

1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Also known as vasopressin, ADH plays a crucial role in water balance. What are the primary functions of ADH?

• Regulates water retention in the kidneys
• Helps maintain blood pressure
• Influences thirst sensation

When the body is dehydrated, ADH levels increase, prompting the kidneys to conserve water. This mechanism helps maintain proper fluid balance in the body.

2. Oxytocin

Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone” due to its role in social bonding. What are the main effects of oxytocin?

• Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
• Promotes milk letdown during breastfeeding
• Influences social bonding and emotional connections

Beyond its reproductive functions, oxytocin plays a significant role in social behavior and emotional well-being.

The Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis: Orchestrating Hormonal Balance

The pituitary gland doesn’t work in isolation; it’s part of a complex system known as the hypothalamus-pituitary axis. How does this system function?

• The hypothalamus constantly monitors various bodily parameters
• Based on these measurements, it signals the pituitary gland to increase or decrease hormone production
• The pituitary gland responds by adjusting its hormone secretion
• This feedback loop helps maintain homeostasis in the body

This intricate communication between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland ensures that hormone levels are finely tuned to meet the body’s changing needs.

Pituitary Disorders: When the Master Gland Malfunctions

While the pituitary gland is remarkably efficient, it can sometimes malfunction, leading to various disorders. What are some common pituitary disorders?

• Pituitary tumors: Benign growths that can affect hormone production
• Hypopituitarism: Underproduction of one or more pituitary hormones
• Hyperpituitarism: Overproduction of pituitary hormones
• Empty sella syndrome: A condition where the pituitary gland appears flattened

Symptoms of pituitary disorders can vary widely depending on which hormones are affected. They may include changes in growth, metabolism, reproductive function, and overall well-being.

Diagnosing and Treating Pituitary Disorders

Given the pituitary gland’s crucial role in hormone regulation, accurate diagnosis and treatment of pituitary disorders are essential. How are pituitary disorders diagnosed and treated?

Diagnosis

• Blood and urine tests to measure hormone levels
• Imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans to visualize the pituitary gland
• Vision tests to check for any impact on the optic nerves
• Specialized endocrine function tests

Treatment

• Hormone replacement therapy for hormone deficiencies
• Medications to control hormone overproduction
• Surgery to remove pituitary tumors
• Radiation therapy for certain types of pituitary tumors

Treatment approaches are tailored to the specific disorder and its underlying cause, often requiring a multidisciplinary team of endocrinologists, neurosurgeons, and other specialists.

The Future of Pituitary Research and Treatment

As our understanding of the pituitary gland and its functions continues to grow, new avenues for research and treatment are emerging. What are some promising areas of pituitary research?

• Gene therapy for pituitary disorders
• Development of more targeted and effective medications
• Improved imaging techniques for earlier detection of pituitary tumors
• Exploration of the pituitary gland’s role in aging and longevity

These advancements hold the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of pituitary disorders, improving outcomes for patients worldwide.

Maintaining Pituitary Health: Lifestyle Factors and Prevention

While many pituitary disorders are not preventable, certain lifestyle factors can support overall pituitary health. What can individuals do to promote pituitary function?

• Maintain a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients
• Engage in regular physical activity
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques and adequate sleep
• Avoid exposure to environmental toxins
• Attend regular check-ups and report any unusual symptoms to a healthcare provider

By adopting these healthy habits, individuals can support their endocrine system and overall well-being, potentially reducing the risk of certain pituitary-related issues.

The pituitary gland, though small in size, plays an outsized role in maintaining our health and well-being. Its intricate dance of hormone production and regulation affects virtually every system in our bodies, from growth and metabolism to reproduction and stress response. As research continues to uncover the complexities of this master gland, we gain a deeper appreciation for its crucial role in orchestrating the symphony of our endocrine system.

Understanding the functions of the pituitary gland not only satisfies our scientific curiosity but also has practical implications for health and medicine. By recognizing the signs of pituitary disorders and seeking timely medical attention, individuals can address potential issues before they escalate. Moreover, ongoing research into pituitary function holds promise for developing more effective treatments for a range of endocrine disorders.

As we look to the future, the field of pituitary research continues to evolve, offering hope for improved diagnostics, more targeted therapies, and a deeper understanding of how this remarkable gland influences our health throughout our lives. By staying informed about pituitary health and supporting ongoing research efforts, we can contribute to advancements that may benefit countless individuals affected by pituitary disorders.

In conclusion, the pituitary gland stands as a testament to the intricate and fascinating nature of human biology. Its ability to regulate multiple bodily functions through a complex network of hormonal signals highlights the remarkable precision of our endocrine system. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the pituitary gland, we open doors to new possibilities in medicine and our understanding of human physiology.

Pituitary Gland Functions | Expert Surgeon

• What is the main function of the pituitary gland?
• Anterior pituitary gland function
• Posterior pituitary gland function

The pituitary gland sits at the base of the brain and secretes hormones that regulate various processes in the body. In this article, we will discuss the individual hormones that the pituitary gland secretes and their various functions.

What Is the Main Function of the Pituitary Gland?

The function of the pituitary gland is to maintain homeostasis (a physiologic balance) within the body. The pituitary gland secretes chemicals, called hormones, that communicate with various organ systems to achieve this balance. Like pressing the gas pedal in your car to speed up, the pituitary gland releases hormones that tell an organ or gland to increase its activity. When the brain wants the activity of that gland or organ to decrease, the pituitary gland lets its foot off the gas and stops or decreases the secretion of that hormone. This causes the activity of the end organ to slow down.

The pituitary gland receives its orders from part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is constantly measuring a complex array of variables that tell the brain how the body is functioning. Based on these measurements, the brain determines if it needs to increase or decrease the activity of specific processes. If the hypothalamus wants activity to speed up, it tells the pituitary to release more hormones. If the hypothalamus wants activity to slow down, it tells the pituitary gland to release less hormones.

The pituitary gland is split into anterior and posterior parts, each of which secretes different types of hormones. There are eight total hormones produced by the pituitary gland, each regulating a specific body process. Pituitary tumors may disrupt one or multiple of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland, causing unique symptoms based on what the hormone(s) is responsible for. More information about the symptoms of pituitary tumors may be found here.

Figure 1. The pituitary gland is made of the anterior and posterior parts and is under the control of hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary Gland Function

Six hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary gland. A brief summary of each hormone is provided below.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol and aldosterone. Cortisol is a molecule called a glucocorticoid that controls many functions that are essential for life. Cortisol has important roles in maintaining blood sugar, blood pressure, brain function, decreasing inflammation, and in how well the kidneys work. Cortisol helps the body deal with stress. When the body is being strained emotionally or physically, the pituitary gland will secrete more ACTH to increase levels of cortisol. In times of low stress, less ACTH will be secreted, and cortisol levels will fall.

ACTH also increases the level of aldosterone secreted by the adrenal glands. Aldosterone helps the kidneys regulate fluids and minerals within the body. Increased levels of aldosterone lead to an increase in the amount of water the body retains. During times of dehydration the body wants to increase levels of aldosterone to hold onto as much water as it can. When well hydrated, the pituitary gland will release less ACTH. This leads to a fall in aldosterone levels and the kidneys holding onto less water. This leads to more urination.

Growth Hormone (GH): Growth hormone regulates metabolism and growth. Growth hormone has an influence on metabolism by regulating blood sugar levels. When the body has low blood sugar, such as during fasting or after exercise, growth hormone may be secreted to increase blood sugar levels. In addition, growth hormone is involved in the growth of the body. Throughout childhood, growth hormone levels remain relatively low. However, during puberty the pituitary gland releases much larger amounts of growth hormone in response to increasing testosterone and estrogen sensed by the hypothalamus. This increase in growth hormone causes the growth spurts experienced during puberty. After puberty, growth hormone levels again decline to a lower level.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH): FSH and LH regulate the ovaries and testes in females and males, respectively. In females, FSH and LH control the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. FSH and LH act on the ovaries to stimulate the secretion of estrogen and progesterone. In males, FSH and LH stimulate the testes to create sperm and secrete testosterone.

Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin is a hormone that is involved in breast development and lactation in new mothers. Prolactin is often maintained at low levels in nonpregnant, non-lactating females and males. During puberty in females, prolactin is increased to promote breast development before again decreasing to low levels after puberty. During pregnancy, prolactin again increases in preparation for breast feeding. This increase in prolactin leads to milk production in the breasts. Once breast feeding stops, prolactin levels again decrease to the baseline level.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Thyroid-stimulating hormone signals the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone. Generally, thyroid hormone’s role is in controlling the rate of metabolism and effects nearly every organ in the body. An increase in thyroid hormone increases bone formation, the amount of oxygen consumed in the body, the speed of blood flow, and how much fuel the body burns. When the body senses low levels of thyroid hormone and wants to increase metabolism, the pituitary is signaled to release more thyroid stimulating hormone. Contrarily, when the body senses an excess of thyroid hormone and wants to slow down metabolism, the pituitary secretes less thyroid stimulating hormone.

Posterior Pituitary Gland Function

Below is a description of the two posterior pituitary gland hormones.

Oxytocin: Oxytocin is responsible for the ejection of milk from the breasts and for stimulating uterine contractions. While prolactin stimulates milk development, oxytocin is responsible for the actual release of milk. Oxytocin levels are increased to cause milk ejection when an infant is suckling a breast, or at the sound, smell, or sight of an infant. In addition to its role in milk release, oxytocin stimulates the uterus to contract during labor. During labor, the cervix dilates. The brain senses this dilation and increases the secretion of oxytocin, causing the uterus to contract.

Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin (ADH): Like aldosterone, ADH is responsible for controlling the levels of body hydration. In states of dehydration, more ADH is secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH signals the kidneys to hold on to more water. Contrarily, when you are well hydrated, the pituitary gland releases less ADH. As a result of less ADH, the kidneys hold onto less water, causing more urination.

Conclusion

The pituitary gland controls a diverse and complex range of processes in the human body. To do this, the pituitary gland carefully releases hormones specific to individual functions.

Key Takeaways

• Hormones are chemical signals that allow for communication between organs in the body.
• The hypothalamus monitors a complex array of variables about the functioning of the human body. The hypothalamus uses hormones secreted by the pituitary gland to control different processes important to life.
• The pituitary gland is split into two parts, anterior and posterior, each of which secrete unique hormones for different processes in the body.

Resources

• National Brain Tumor Society 
• Pituitary Network Association 
• American Brain Tumor Association 
• Pediatric Brain Tumor Foundation
• Endocrine Society 
• Pituitary Foundation 
• Cushing’s Support & Research Foundation

Endocrine system 5: the functions of the pineal and thymus glands

23 August, 2021

The endocrine system comprises glands and tissues that produce hormones for regulating and coordinating vital bodily functions. This article, the fifth in an eight-part series, looks at the pineal and thymus glands

Abstract

The endocrine system consists of glands and tissues that produce and secrete hormones to regulate and coordinate vital bodily functions. This article, the fifth in an eight-part series on the endocrine system, explores the anatomy and physiology of the pineal and thymus glands, and describes how they regulate and coordinate vital physiological processes in the body through hormonal action.

Citation: Knight J et al (2021) Endocrine system 5: pineal and thymus glands. Nursing Times [online]; 117: 9, 54-58.

Authors: John Knight is associate professor in biomedical science; Zubeyde Bayram-Weston is senior lecturer in biomedical science; Maria Andrade is honorary associate professor in biomedical science; all at College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University.

This article has been double-blind peer reviewed

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Gonads | Library EVC

Sex glands , in addition to their main function – the production of female and male germ cells – eggs and sperm, respectively, also carry out an endocrine function – the synthesis and release of sex hormones into the blood. The male sex hormones, otherwise called androgens, include testosterone and androsterone, the former being a much more active biological substance than the latter, and, accordingly, more is produced.

The directly anatomical formations that determine the endocrine function of the paired gonads – the testes (in males and cats) are interstitial cells that lie in the thickness of the connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone, from which the synthesis of secondary sex hormones is possible in the future, for example, androsterone and others, which, as mentioned above, are less active.

Testicle and appendage

Androgens have a physiologically significant anabolic effect, forming a positive nitrogen balance, resulting in an increase in muscle mass and active growth of other body tissues in dogs and cats. The anabolic effect is most pronounced when there is an active process of puberty (for this reason, males that were castrated at an early age have some distinctive features in the structure – slenderness, “flatness”, small muscle mass, etc. ).

In addition to the effect on protein and other types of metabolism, androgens secreted by the testes have a decisive influence on the formation of secondary sexual characteristics – indirectly – also through the effect on metabolism and acceleration of the growth of certain organs and tissues. The sexual behavior of males is another parameter that develops precisely under the influence of sex hormones – testosterone and its analogues. Often, their high level is associated with increased aggressiveness, both in relation to other animals and in relation to people.

The production of androgens in the testes (as well as female sex hormones in the ovaries) is directly controlled by the luteinizing hormone synthesized in the adenohypophysis – the anterior pituitary gland. And the excretion of luteinizing hormone into the blood is also dependent – its synthesis is affected by the production of luliberin – one of the liberin substances produced by the neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus – one of the parts of the brain. During puberty, the production of luliberin, luteinizing hormone and, accordingly, testosterone, increases like an avalanche. Male aging, on the contrary, is accompanied by a decrease in the synthesis of these hormones.

Female sex hormones – estradiol, estrol and some others – are called estrogens. Also in the ovaries in certain phases of the sexual cycle, progesterone is actively produced, which is the hormone of the corpus luteum, which is formed at the site of the ovulated follicle. All activity of the ovaries during the reproductive activity of the female proceeds in phases, and the phases tend to repeat themselves cyclically.

In the follicular phase of the sexual cycle, follicle growth occurs, and the largest follicle, the egg of which subsequently ovulates, is called the Graaffian vesicle (it has a cavity inside, unlike immature follicles). This phase is characterized by high estrogen activity. The second phase, which begins after ovulation, is the luteal phase, as it is characterized by high activity of the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. In the first, estrogen-dependent phase, significant changes occur in the female genital organs – the uterus enlarges, its glands actively develop, and the sensitivity of the myometrium (the muscular membrane of the uterine wall) to oxytocin increases.

The synthesis of progesterone in the second phase of the cycle, after ovulation, ensures the preparation of the female body for pregnancy and the preservation of the latter in the event that conception has occurred. During this period, the activation of secretion processes by the uterine glands begins, the inner mucous membrane of the uterine wall becomes thicker and looser, the sensitivity to oxytocin decreases, which ensures the preservation of a potential pregnancy. Also, progesterone affects the functional activity of the mammary glands, preparing them for the lactation period, for which various structural changes occur inside them, as a result of which the normal course of the processes of synthesis and excretion of milk subsequently becomes possible.

In addition to the hormones listed above, some other biologically active substances are also synthesized in the gonads (for example, relaxin, the action of which is aimed at facilitating the process of childbirth by affecting the birth canal and anatomical formations located in the immediate vicinity of them, inhibin, and others). All of them together determine sexual development, the appearance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, sexual behavior and ensuring the normal course of reproductive processes.

Ito Clinic

1. Parathyroid functions
2. Primary hyperparathyroidism
3. Secondary (derivative) hyperparathyroidism
4. Parathyroid cyst

Functions of the parathyroid glands

What are the parathyroid glands?

The parathyroid glands are organs the size of rice
grain located behind the thyroid gland.
they
called parathyroid, but are organs
completely different from the thyroid gland and are also called
“perithyroid”. As a rule, in the body 4
parathyroid glands, located in pairs on the right and
on the left side of the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Quantity
and the location of the parathyroid glands can be
different – sometimes there are more than 5, and sometimes only 3. Usually
the size of the parathyroid glands is very small, so they are difficult to
detect on cervical ultrasound

■Posterior view of the parathyroid glands

Functions of the parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone. Basic
the function of parathyroid hormone is
regulation of calcium concentration in the blood.
Calcium is not only
the main component of bone tissue, it also plays
irreplaceable role in blood clotting and contraction of each muscle
in the body, including the heart. It is an essential mineral
ensuring the proper functioning of brain cells
brain. Calcium is accumulated and stored in the bones, and
parathyroid hormone, along with vitamin D, regulates it
excretion from bone tissue into the blood, absorption in the kidneys or
intestines, and thus performs the function of increasing
calcium levels in the blood.
As a rule, the calcium content in
blood is regulated at the level of 8.8-10.1 mg / dl (depending on
laboratory equipment indicators may slightly
vary).
Calcium, in turn, can affect the secretion
parathyroid hormone. Low blood calcium
stimulates the secretion of parathyroid hormone, which leads to
an increase in calcium levels. On the other hand, high levels of calcium in
blood suppresses the secretion of parathyroid hormone, which leads to
to lower calcium levels. Thus the concentration of calcium
in the blood is maintained at a certain level.

Primary hyperparathyroidism

What is primary hyperparathyroidism?

This is an increase in the concentration of calcium in the blood as a result of
pathologically excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone, which
leads to urolithiasis, osteoporosis and various other
diseases associated with hypercalcemia.
Hyperparathyroidism
is diagnosed in approximately 1 in 4,000 to 5,000 people. How
as a rule, this is a benign disease, and the proportion of cancer
accounts for 1-5% of all cases, so we can say that he
rarely associated with cancer.
Hyperparathyroidism may
be caused not only by abnormalities in the parathyroid glands, but
and other diseases, including kidney
insufficiency, etc. disease caused by abnormalities in
the parathyroid glands themselves, is classified as “primary
hyperparathyroidism”, a disease caused by other causes –
as “secondary (derivative) hyperparathyroidism”.

Symptoms

There are 3 kinds of typical symptoms:
(1) Bone pathology (bones become brittle and
prone to fracture. In severe cases, there may be
decrease in height)

(2) Urolithiasis (kidney stones)

(3) Hypercalcemia (headache, thirst, heartburn, nausea,
loss of appetite, constipation and other gastrointestinal disorders,
irritability, fatigue, decreased muscle tone and
etc. )

Incidental discovery has been on the rise recently
hypercalcemia during clinical examination, etc. even before the manifestation
typical symptoms.
In this disease, slightly elevated
the level of calcium in the blood, especially at the initial stage
disease often causes no obvious symptoms. However
with a significant increase in the level of calcium in the blood
the above symptoms may worsen.
Cancer
parathyroid gland often causes excessively high levels
calcium, so the above 3 symptoms are clearly
appear.

Survey

(1) Examinations for the diagnosis of disease :
blood/urinalysis
Serum calcium concentration
blood, the level of parathyroid hormones, the concentration of calcium in
urine, etc.

(2) Examinations to determine the location of tumors in
parathyroid glands

Ultrasound examination (ultrasound), radioisotope examination
(scintigraphy of the parathyroid glands (MIBI-scintigraphy)), CT
cervical region, etc.

Parathyroid cancer is a disease that is difficult to
diagnose before treatment. Diagnosis must be made after
a comprehensive assessment of all symptoms, the results of the above
examinations and results of histopathological examination
after surgery.

Treatment

Surgical treatment is usually recommended if
the calcium content in the blood is at the level of St. 11 mg/dl.
The radical method of treatment is surgical resection
hypertrophied affected area of ​​the parathyroid gland.
Asymptomatic and slightly elevated
the concentration of calcium in the blood, the choice of monitoring for
the patient’s condition.

Everyday life

If hyperparathyroidism is diagnosed, it should be observed
caution, because the condition can easily come
dehydration . To prevent an increase in calcium levels in
blood needs regular fluid intake to
prevention of elevated calcium levels.
In case of emergency
high levels of calcium in the blood and the presence of pronounced
symptoms require urgent hospitalization. Wherein
emergency treatment may not be required if the patient has
there is only a slight increase in the level of calcium in the blood and
there are no obvious symptoms. A person can maintain a normal
lifestyle before determining the date of hospitalization.

Secondary (derivative) hyperparathyroidism

What is secondary (derivative) hyperparathyroidism?

Secondary hyperparathyroidism is a disease
characterized by excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone
and abnormally high levels of calcium in the blood, which is caused by
not by deviations in the parathyroid glands themselves, but by such
diseases such as rickets, vitamin D deficiency, chronic
kidney failure, etc. , not related to
parathyroid glands.

Typical cause: Renal hyperparathyroidism
Common secondary (derivative) cause
hyperparathyroidism is renal hyperparathyroidism.
At
chronic renal failure is not excreted in the kidneys
phosphorus and the formation of the active form of vitamin D3 is disrupted.
Decreased levels of activated vitamin D3 reduce
absorption of calcium in the intestine.
Thus, in people with
chronic renal failure low calcium levels
and elevated levels of phosphorus in the blood, leading to
stimulation of the parathyroid glands, causing the release
parathyroid hormone. parathyroid glands,
stimulated over a long period of time,
hypertrophy and begin to overproduce
parathyroid hormone regardless of the level of calcium in the blood.

Symptoms

Excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone leads to
the release of calcium from the bones into the blood, causing a condition
called “fibrous osteodystrophy”, in which the bones
become very brittle. It can cause bone pain
bone deformities and pathological fractures.
In addition,
too much parathyroid hormone leads to
abnormal deposition of calcium in various organs
(ectopic calcification), which causes such disorders,
like atherosclerosis, valvular heart disease and arthritis, etc.

Examination and treatment

Examinations to determine the level of parathyroid hormone,
phosphorus and calcium in the blood must be taken regularly. For
prevention of renal hyperparathyroidism are important such
preventive measures such as diet therapy, taking adsorbents
phosphorus, and in case of a decrease in the concentration of calcium (Ca) in the blood
– calcium preparations, activated vitamin D3 (or its
intravenous administration), etc. With the development of the disease to
a certain stage as drug therapy, before
total, cinacalcet hydrochloride (Regpara®),
etelcalcetide hydrochloride (Parsabiv®), eucalcet
(Orkedia®). If the disease progresses despite
drug therapy, as well as in case of impossibility of its
continuation due to side effects, considered
surgery.
Common method of surgical
treatment consists in total resection of the parathyroid glands with
subsequent transplantation of part of the removed glands into another
part of the body, such as the forearm.
※If necessary
surgical treatment for a patient who needs
dialysis, our hospital issues referrals to other medical
institutions with dialysis equipment.

Parathyroid cyst

What is a parathyroid cyst?

A cyst is a collection of fluid in the parathyroid glands.
There are hormonally inactive cysts of the parathyroid glands,
that are not accompanied by an increase in the level of parathyroid
hormone, and hormonally active cysts of the parathyroid glands,
which show signs of excessive secretion
parathyroid hormone.

Hormonally inactive parathyroid cysts

Parathyroid glands develop from gill pockets
embryo corresponding to the gills of fish that are displaced
down and located behind the thyroid gland. Counts,
that if a channel is retained during the displacement process, it may
develop into a hormonally inactive parathyroid cyst
glands

Hormonally active parathyroid cysts

The cause of hormonally active parathyroid cysts
considered cystic degeneration of parathyroid adenoma
glands, etc.

Symptoms

Hormonally inactive parathyroid cysts

Virtually no symptoms.

Hormonally active parathyroid cysts

The symptoms are similar to those that occur with primary
hyperparathyroidism

Examination and treatment

It is necessary to perform tests to determine the level
parathyroid hormone and calcium in the blood to find out
Is the cyst hormonally inactive or
hormonally active. The location of the cyst is determined by
ultrasound examination (ultrasound), computed tomography
(CT) and isotopic examination (MIBI-scintigraphy), etc.

Hormonally inactive parathyroid cysts

The cyst may be punctured and drained.