What is bone? How does bone form and grow over time? Discover the key facts about the physiology and definition of bone in this comprehensive article.

Understanding the Anatomy and Composition of Bone

Bone is a living, growing tissue that is mostly made up of collagen, a protein that provides a soft framework, and calcium phosphate, a mineral that adds strength and hardens the framework. This unique combination of collagen and calcium makes bone strong yet flexible enough to withstand stress. In fact, more than 99 percent of the body’s calcium is contained in the bones and teeth, with the remaining 1 percent found in the blood.

There are two main types of bone found in the human body: cortical bone and trabecular bone. Cortical bone is dense and compact, forming the outer layer of the bone. Trabecular bone, on the other hand, has a spongy, honeycomb-like structure and makes up the inner layer of the bone.

The Bone Formation Process: From Fetal Cartilage to Adult Bone

The construction of bone tissue begins when we are a fetus in the womb, and continues throughout our lives. This process is known as ossification. Initially, fetal cartilage acts as the precursor to bone growth. The fetal cartilage attracts the minerals calcium and phosphorus, which cover the cartilage cells.

As the fetal cartilage cells die off, small holes are left through which blood vessels can grow. Osteoblasts, the specialized cells responsible for bone growth, then travel to the developing bone via these tiny blood vessels. The osteoblasts produce the collagen fibers that form the structure over which bone is formed, and they also attract the calcium that helps to reinforce the collagen fibers and strengthen the bone.

Over time, the osteoblasts transform into osteocytes, which become part of the calcium mix that helps to further reinforce the bone. Meanwhile, osteoclasts are the cells responsible for breaking down and reabsorbing old bone tissue.

The Bone “Bank Account”: Balancing Bone Formation and Resorption

Think of bone as a bank account where you “deposit” and “withdraw” bone tissue. During childhood and the teenage years, new bone is added to the skeleton faster than old bone is removed. As a result, bones become larger, heavier, and denser. For most people, bone formation continues at a faster pace than removal until bone mass peaks during the third decade of life.

After age 20, bone “withdrawals” can begin to exceed “deposits.” For many people, this bone loss can be prevented by continuing to get enough calcium, vitamin D, and exercise, and by avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol use. Osteoporosis develops when bone removal occurs too quickly, replacement occurs too slowly, or both.

Gender Differences in Bone Health and Osteoporosis Risk

Women are more likely than men to develop osteoporosis. This is because women generally have smaller, thinner bones than men, and because women can lose bone tissue rapidly in the first 4 to 8 years after menopause due to the sharp decline in production of the hormone estrogen. Estrogen has been shown to have a protective effect on bone.

Although men do not undergo the equivalent of menopause, their production of the male hormone testosterone may decrease with age, leading to increased bone loss and a greater risk of developing osteoporosis.

Preventing Osteoporosis Through a Comprehensive Approach

Osteoporosis is preventable for many people. A comprehensive program that can help prevent osteoporosis includes:

• A balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D
• Weight-bearing exercise
• A healthy lifestyle with no smoking or excessive alcohol intake
• Bone density testing
• Medication, when appropriate

Key Takeaways

In summary, bone is a living, growing tissue that is constantly undergoing a process of breakdown and renewal. The construction of bone tissue begins in utero and continues throughout our lives. Fetal cartilage is the precursor to bone growth, and it is transformed into bone through a process called ossification.

Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts all play crucial roles in the bone formation and resorption process. Maintaining a healthy balance between bone formation and resorption is essential for maintaining strong, dense bones and preventing conditions like osteoporosis.

By understanding the physiology of bone and implementing a comprehensive approach to bone health, individuals can take steps to build and maintain strong, healthy bones throughout their lives.

What Is Bone? | NIH Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center

To understand osteoporosis, it is important to learn about bone. Made mostly of collagen, bone is living, growing tissue. Collagen is a protein that provides a soft framework, and calcium phosphate is a mineral that adds strength and hardens the framework. This combination of collagen and calcium makes bone strong and flexible enough to withstand stress. More than 99 percent of the body’s calcium is contained in the bones and teeth. The remaining 1 percent is found in the blood.

Two types of bone are found in the body—cortical and trabecular. Cortical bone is dense and compact. It forms the outer layer of the bone. Trabecular bone makes up the inner layer of the bone and has a spongy, honeycomb-like structure.

The bone bank account

Think of bone as a bank account where you “deposit” and “withdraw” bone tissue. During childhood and the teenage years, new bone is added to the skeleton faster than old bone is removed. As a result, bones become larger, heavier, and denser. For most people, bone formation continues at a faster pace than removal until bone mass peaks during the third decade of life.

After age 20, bone “withdrawals” can begin to exceed “deposits.” For many people, this bone loss can be prevented by continuing to get calcium, vitamin D, and exercise and by avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol use. Osteoporosis develops when bone removal occurs too quickly, replacement occurs too slowly, or both. You are more likely to develop osteoporosis if you did not reach your maximum peak bone mass during your bone-building years.

Women, men, and osteoporosis

Women are more likely than men to develop osteoporosis. This is because women generally have smaller, thinner bones than men have and because women can lose bone tissue rapidly in the first 4 to 8 years after menopause because of the sharp decline in production of the hormone estrogen. Produced by the ovaries, estrogen has been shown to have a protective effect on bone. Women usually go through menopause between age 45 and 55. After menopause, bone loss in women greatly exceeds that in men. However, by age 65, women and men tend to lose bone tissue at the same rate. Although men do not undergo the equivalent of menopause, production of the male hormone testosterone may decrease, and this can lead to increased bone loss and a greater risk of developing osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis prevention

Osteoporosis is preventable for many people. Prevention is important because although there are treatments for osteoporosis, a cure has not yet been found. A comprehensive program that can help prevent osteoporosis includes:

• A balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D.
• Weight-bearing exercise.
• A healthy lifestyle with no smoking or excessive alcohol intake.
• Bone density testing.
• Medication, when appropriate.

The National Institutes of Health Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases ~
National Resource Center acknowledges the assistance of the
National Osteoporosis Foundation in the preparation of this publication.

For your information

For updates and for any questions about any medications you are taking, please contact

U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Toll Free: 888-INFO-FDA (888-463-6332)
Website: https://www.fda.gov

For additional information on specific medications, visit Drugs@FDA at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf. Drugs@FDA is a searchable catalog of FDA-approved drug products.

NIH Pub. No. 18-7876

How Are Bones Made and How Do They Grow?

posted: Sep. 10, 2018.

Each of the 206 bones in your body is constantly undergoing a process of breakdown and renewal, even if you have never suffered a broken bone in your life. Your entire skeleton is completely replaced approximately every 10 years. The construction of bone tissue begins when we are a fetus in the womb, and continues until we die. Our genetics and both the nutrients we receive before we are born and those we get through our diet in our youth have a major influence on the strength and endurance of our skeletal system.

Fetal cartilage is the precursor to bone growth, and is transformed into bone in a process called ossification. The fetal cartilage attracts the minerals calcium and phosphorus, which cover the cartilage cells. The fetal cartilage cells soon die off, leaving small holes through which blood vessels can grow. Osteoblasts, the specialized cells responsible for bone growth, travel to the developing bone via these tiny blood vessels. There they produce the collagen fibers that are the structure over which bone is formed, and attract the calcium with which the fibers are covered. Osteoblasts eventually transform into osteocytes, which become part of the calcium mix that helps to reinforce the collagen fibers and strengthen the bone.

Osteoclasts are the cells responsible for breaking down and removing old bone tissue, leaving small chambers that allow marrow to form. The small holes osteoclasts create are why this particular part of the bone is called spongy bone. Although it is hard, spongy bone resembles a common kitchen sponge. In our youth, the osteoblasts outnumber the osteoclasts, so we have a net gain of bone growth. This is when the growth of bone is referred to as modeling. Bone continues to grow until approximately our mid-20s, at which point we have reached our greatest bone density.

From our mid-20s on, our bones are in a constant process of remodeling. At this point, the osteoblasts can no longer keep up with the osteoclasts.  While bone is continually being rebuilt, no supplemental bone is being added, so we can begin to lose bone density. Even though our bodies no longer add to our stock of spongy bone tissue after our mid-20s, we can still continue to add bone to the outer layer of our bones, called compact bone. Compact bone accounts for about 80 percent of our bone mass and protects the more fragile spongy bone inside. Although compact bone is considerably denser than spongy bone, it still has tiny channels for blood vessels and nerves to pass through.

Our spongy bone is filled with two types of marrow, red and yellow. Red bone marrow is responsible for the creation of our red and white blood cells and the platelets that are necessary for clotting in order to stop bleeding when we are injured. Yellow bone marrow consists mostly of fat cells and is more common in our long bones, such as the femur.

A healthy diet with adequate amounts of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and vitamin K, along with a little regular weight-bearing exercise, will help ensure that you maintain the greatest bone density possible as you age, and will help protect against the danger of fractures due to osteoporosis.

How do bones form -understand how bones are made

How bones are formed.

Bones begin life as cartilage. As the young baby develops in the mother’s womb, the skeletal system becomes organised into a framework of cartilage. Before birth, there is a certain amount of hardening of the limb bones to allow the animal to stand shortly after delivery.  However, the greater part of the skeleton is cartilage at birth. After birth, hardening of all parts of the skeleton begins. This process continues throughout life until, in old age, very little cartilage is left and the bones are old and brittle. The process of hardening cartilage into bone is called ossification.

Ossification is achieved by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts (osteo- means “bone” in Greek). The old osteoblasts produce bone tissue, which is also called osteotissue, and also secrete the enzyme phosphatase which allows calcium salts to be deposited in the newly formed bone tissue. This makes the tissue hard or bone-like.

The osteoblasts are connected by a system of tiny canals called canaliculi which bring tissue fluid to each osteoblast. The canals and special cells make a network which forms the frame of the bone. The newly made bone tissue is laid down on this mould and, in time, becomes calcified or hardened.

Once the bone tissue is hardened and mature, the osteoblast change into osteocyctes (mature bone cells).  They sit in small cavities called lacunae within the calcified or hardened bone tissue. The system of canals still connects the lacunae and now serves to carry tissue fluid that is essential for the maintenance of life of the osteocytes.

Who Needs to Understand Bones?

A knowledge of bones is important to not only doctors, but also anyone working in allied health industries. Fitness and sporting professionals need to also understand bones (along with muscles), in order to properly understand and manage human movement. Nutritionists also need to understand bones, in order to properly manage diet.

Biology teachers teach people about bones; physiotherapists help people rehabilitate after bone injuries, and first aid officers need to understand the bone structure of the human body in order to help and not hinder in an emergency.

In today’s world; where so many people spend much of their lives sitting, or focused on a computer screen; the potential for chronic bone and muscle problems has greatly increased. An understanding of bones and muscles can help you better manage yourself; those around you; and for those who are involved in health, safety or fitness professions; can further your career prospects.

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Bones, Muscles, and Joints (for Parents)

What Are Bones and What Do They Do?

Bones provide support for our bodies and help form our shape. Although they’re very light, bones are strong enough to support our entire weight.

Bones also protect the body’s organs. The skull protects the brain and forms the shape of the face. The spinal cord, a pathway for messages between the brain and the body, is protected by the backbone, or spinal column. The ribs form a cage that shelters the heart and lungs, and the pelvis helps protect the bladder, part of the intestines, and in women, the reproductive organs.

Bones are made up of a framework of a protein called collagen, with a mineral called calcium phosphate that makes the framework hard and strong. Bones store calcium and release some into the bloodstream when it’s needed by other parts of the body. The amounts of some vitamins and minerals that you eat, especially vitamin D and calcium, directly affect how much calcium is stored in the bones.

Bones are made up of two types of bone tissues:

1. Compact bone is the solid, hard outside part of the bone. It looks like ivory and is extremely strong. Holes and channels run through it, carrying blood vessels and nerves.
2. Cancellous (KAN-suh-lus) bone, which looks like a sponge, is inside compact bone. It is made up of a mesh-like network of tiny pieces of bone called trabeculae (truh-BEH-kyoo-lee). This is where bone marrow is found.

In this soft bone is where most of the body’s blood cells are made. The bone marrow contains stem cells, which produce the body’s red blood cells and platelets, and some types of white blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body’s tissues, and platelets help with blood clotting when someone has a cut or wound. White blood cells help the body fight infection.

Bones are fastened to other bones by long, fibrous straps called ligaments (LIG-uh-mentz). Cartilage (KAR-tul-ij), a flexible, rubbery substance in our joints, supports bones and protects them where they rub against each other.

How Do Bones Grow?

The bones of kids and young teens are smaller than those of adults and contain “growing zones” called growth plates. These plates consist of multiplying cartilage cells that grow in length, and then change into hard, mineralized bone. These growth plates are easy to spot on an X-ray. Because girls mature at an earlier age than boys, their growth plates change into hard bone at an earlier age.

Bone-building continues throughout life, as a body constantly renews and reshapes the bones’ living tissue. Bone contains three types of cells:

1. osteoblasts (AHS-tee-uh-blastz), which make new bone and help repair damage
2. osteocytes (AHS-tee-o-sites), mature bone cells which help continue new born formation
3. osteoclasts (AHS-tee-o-klasts), which break down bone and help to sculpt and shape it

What Are Muscles and What Do They Do?

Muscles pull on the joints, allowing us to move. They also help the body do such things as chewing food and then moving it through the digestive system.

Even when we sit perfectly still, muscles throughout the body are constantly moving. Muscles help the heart beat, the chest rise and fall during breathing, and blood vessels regulate the pressure and flow of blood. When we smile and talk, muscles help us communicate, and when we exercise, they help us stay physically fit and healthy.

Humans have three different kinds of muscle:

1. Skeletal muscle is attached by cord-like tendons to bone, such as in the legs, arms, and face. Skeletal muscles are called striated (STRY-ay-ted) because they are made up of fibers that have horizontal stripes when viewed under a microscope. These muscles help hold the skeleton together, give the body shape, and help it with everyday movements (known as voluntary muscles because you can control them). They can contract (shorten or tighten) quickly and powerfully, but they tire easily.
2. Smooth, or involuntary, muscle is also made of fibers, but this type of muscle looks smooth, not striated. We can’t consciously control our smooth muscles; rather, they’re controlled by the nervous system automatically (which is why they’re also called involuntary). Examples of smooth muscles are the walls of the stomach and intestines, which help break up food and move it through the digestive system. Smooth muscle is also found in the walls of blood vessels, where it squeezes the stream of blood flowing through the vessels to help maintain blood pressure. Smooth muscles take longer to contract than skeletal muscles do, but they can stay contracted for a long time because they don’t tire easily.
3. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart. The walls of the heart’s chambers are composed almost entirely of muscle fibers. Cardiac muscle is also an involuntary type of muscle. Its rhythmic, powerful contractions force blood out of the heart as it beats.

How Do Muscles Work?

The movements that muscles make are coordinated and controlled by the brain and nervous system. The involuntary muscles are controlled by structures deep within the brain and the upper part of the spinal cord called the brain stem. The voluntary muscles are regulated by the parts of the brain known as the cerebral motor cortex and the cerebellum (ser-uh-BEL-um).

When you decide to move, the motor cortex sends an electrical signal through the spinal cord and peripheral nerves to the muscles, making them contract. The motor cortex on the right side of the brain controls the muscles on the left side of the body and vice versa.

The cerebellum coordinates the muscle movements ordered by the motor cortex. Sensors in the muscles and joints send messages back through peripheral nerves to tell the cerebellum and other parts of the brain where and how the arm or leg is moving and what position it’s in. This feedback results in smooth, coordinated motion. If you want to lift your arm, your brain sends a message to the muscles in your arm and you move it. When you run, the messages to the brain are more involved, because many muscles have to work in rhythm.

Muscles move body parts by contracting and then relaxing. Muscles can pull bones, but they can’t push them back to the original position. So they work in pairs of flexors and extensors. The flexor contracts to bend a limb at a joint. Then, when the movement is completed, the flexor relaxes and the extensor contracts to extend or straighten the limb at the same joint. For example, the biceps muscle, in the front of the upper arm, is a flexor, and the triceps, at the back of the upper arm, is an extensor. When you bend at your elbow, the biceps contracts. Then the biceps relaxes and the triceps contracts to straighten the elbow.

What Are Joints and What Do They Do?

Joints are where two bones meet. They make the skeleton flexible — without them, movement would be impossible.

Joints allow our bodies to move in many ways. Some joints open and close like a hinge (such as knees and elbows), whereas others allow for more complicated movement — a shoulder or hip joint, for example, allows for backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movement.

Joints are classified by their range of movement:

• Immovable, or fibrous, joints don’t move. The dome of the skull, for example, is made of bony plates, which move slightly during birth and then fuse together as the skull finishes growing. Between the edges of these plates are links, or joints, of fibrous tissue. Fibrous joints also hold the teeth in the jawbone.
• Partially movable, or cartilaginous (kar-tuh-LAH-juh-nus), joints move a little. They are linked by cartilage, as in the spine. Each of the vertebrae in the spine moves in relation to the one above and below it, and together these movements give the spine its flexibility.
• Freely movable, or synovial (sih-NO-vee-ul), joints move in many directions. The main joints of the body — such as those found at the hip, shoulders, elbows, knees, wrists, and ankles — are freely movable. They are filled with synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant to help the joints move easily.

Three kinds of freely movable joints play a big part in voluntary movement:

1. Hinge joints allow movement in one direction, as seen in the knees and elbows.
2. Pivot joints allow a rotating or twisting motion, like that of the head moving from side to side.
3. Ball-and-socket joints allow the greatest freedom of movement. The hips and shoulders have this type of joint, in which the round end of a long bone fits into the hollow of another bone.

Cartilage, Bone & Ossification: The Histology Guide

Cartilage, Bone & Ossification:

Bone

What is bone for?

1. Support – bones make up a structural framework for the body, and provide attachment sites for muscles.
2. Protection – protection of internal organs – i.e. brain, heart and lungs,
3. Assisting movement.
4. Mineral homeostasis – the bone is a store for calcium and phosphorus
5. Blood cell production – takes place in the bone marrow.

What is bone made up of?

Bone is a strong, flexible and semi-rigid supporting tissue. It can withstand compression forces, and yet it can bend. Like cartilage, and other types of connective tissue, bone is made up of Cells and Extracellular matrix:

Cells – which in bone are called osteoblasts and osteocytes, (osteo – bone). There are also two other cell types: osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts.

Find out more about the types of cells found in bone

Extracellular matrix, which is made up of an organic matrix (30%) containing proteoglycans (but less than cartilage), glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, osteonectin (anchors bone mineral to collagen) and osteocalcin (calcium binding protein). There are collagen fibres (mostly type I (90%), with some type V). Only 25% of bone is water. Almost 70% of bone is made up of bone mineral called hydroxyapatite.

Before the extracellular matrix is calcified, the tissue is called osteoid (bone-like) tissue. When the concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions rise high enough, they are deposited into the extracellular matrix, and the bone calcifies. Impaired calcification (i.e. in diseases such as rickets) leads to higher levels of osteoid tissue than normal. Calcification occurs only in presence of collagen fibres – salts crystallize in the spaces between the fibres, then accumulate around them.

Bone is resistant to bending, twisting, compression and stretch. It is hard, because it is calcified, and the collagen fibres help the bone to resist tensile stresses. If you dissolve away the calcium salts of bone, then the bone becomes rubbery because of the collagen fibres which are left behind.

Types of bone:

The first bone formed at any site is woven (or primary) bone, but this is soon replaced by lamellar bone. In woven bone the collagen fibres are random. In lamellar bone, the collagen fibres have become re-modelled to become more parallel – in layers.

There are two types of mature bone:

1. Compact – which is found in the shafts of long bones (in the diaphyses). This makes up 80% of all bone.

2. Spongy (cancellous) bone – which is found at the ends of long bones (in the epiphysis). This makes up 20% of all bone. This type of bone contains red bone marrow and a network of bony trabeculae.

A ‘periosteum‘ is found on the outside of bone. This is a dense fibrous layer, where muscles insert. It contains bone forming cells. It is not found in the regions of bone covered by articular cartilage.

The endosteum is the name given to the tissue that lines the inner surfaces of bones.

Click here to find out about the structure of these two types of bone in more detail.

(Note : osteo – bone from the greek osteon which means bone)

Growth and nourishment of bone.

Unlike cartilage, bone has a very good blood supply. Bone is riddled with blood capillaries. The central cavity contains blood vessels and is a storage for bone marrow. All of the osteocytes in bone are within 0.2mm of a capillary. The tissue fluid from the capillary reaches the osteocytes though canaliculi.

There are two ways in which bone can grow:

1. Endochondral – formation of bone onto a temporary cartilage model or scaffold.
2. Intramembranous – formation of bone directly onto fibrous connective tissue. There is no intermediate cartilage stage. This type of ossification occurs in a few specialised places such as the flat bones of skull (i.e. parietal bone), mandible, maxilla and clavicles. Mesenchyme cells differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, then into osteoblasts, which secrete the bone matrix. Once the osteoblasts are embedded in the bone matrix, they are known as osteocytes.

Find out more about Ossification

What next ..

When you’ve finished reading through the sections on bone and cartilage, try drawing up a table comparing the properties of bone, and cartilage:

Think about:

• why bone is able to resist tension and compression.
• How the differences between bone and cartilage can be accounted for in terms of the nature of the extracellular components present in cartilage and bone.
• How bone and cartilage obtain their nourishment.
• The different names for the cells in bone and cartilage.
• The different names for the outer layer of dense connective tissue.

14.4: Structure of Bone – Biology LibreTexts

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1. Roasted Bone Marrow
2. Bone Anatomy
   1. Types of Osseous Tissue
   2. Other Tissues in Bones
   3. Bone Cells
3. Microscopic Anatomy of The Compact Bone
4. Types of Bones
5. Feature: Reliable Sources
6. Review
7. Explore More
8. Attributions

Roasted Bone Marrow

Do you recognize the food item in the top left of this photo in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)? It’s roasted bone marrow, still inside the bones. It’s considered a delicacy in some cuisines. Marrow is a type of tissue found inside many animal bones, including our own. It’s a soft tissue that in adults may be mostly fat. You’ll learn more about bone marrow and other tissues that make up bones when you read this concept.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\):Roasted Bone Marrow

Bones are organs that consist primarily of bone tissue, also called osseous tissue. Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting mainly of a collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and phosphorus crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and hard mineral crystals makes bone tissue hard without making it brittle.

Bone Anatomy

There are several different types of tissues in bones, including two types of osseous tissues.

Types of Osseous Tissue

The two different types of osseous tissue are compact bone tissue (also called hard or cortical bone) tissue and spongy bone tissue (also called cancellous or trabecular bone).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Bones are more complex on the inside than you would expect from their outer appearance. There is bone marrow in the hollow part of the long bone. The outer boundary of bone is composed of compact bone tissue, and from the ends, and the rest of the bone interior is composed of cancellous or spongy bone tissue. The bone is covered in connecting tissue called the periosteum.

Compact bone tissue forms the extremely hard outside layer of bones. Cortical bone tissue gives bone its smooth, dense, solid appearance. It accounts for about 80 percent of the total bone mass of the adult skeleton. Spongy bone tissue fills part or all of the interior of many bones. As its name suggests, spongy bone is porous like a sponge, containing an irregular network of spaces. This makes spongy bone much less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone has a greater surface area than cortical bone but makes up only 20 percent of bone mass.

Both compact and spongy bone tissues have the same types of cells, but they differ in how the cells are arranged. The cells in the compact bone are arranged in multiple microscopic columns, whereas the cells in the spongy bone are arranged in a looser, more open network. These cellular differences explain why cortical and spongy bone tissues have such different structures.

Other Tissues in Bones

Besides cortical and spongy bone tissues, bones contain several other tissues, including blood vessels and nerves. In addition, bones contain bone marrow and periosteum. You can see these tissues in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).

• Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that is found inside a cavity, called the marrow cavity. There are two types of marrow in adults, yellow bone marrow, which consists mostly of fat, and red bone marrow. All marrow is red in newborns, but by adulthood, much of the red marrow has changed to yellow marrow. In adults, red marrow is found mainly in the femur, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvic bones. Red bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the process of hematopoiesis.
• Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers the outer surface of bones. It provides a protective covering for cortical bone tissue. It is also the source of new bone cells.

Bone Cells

As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), bone tissues are composed of four different types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells.

• Osteoblasts are bone cells with a single nucleus that make and mineralize bone matrix. They make a protein mixture that is composed primarily of collagen and creates the organic part of the matrix. They also release calcium and phosphate ions that form mineral crystals within the matrix. In addition, they produce hormones that also play a role in the mineralization of the matrix.
• Osteocytes are mainly inactive bone cells that form from osteoblasts that have become entrapped within their own bone matrix. Osteocytes help regulate the formation and breakdown of bone tissue. They have multiple cell projections that are thought to be involved in communication with other bone cells.
• Osteoclasts are bone cells with multiple nuclei that resorb bone tissue and break down bone. They dissolve the minerals in bone and release them into the blood.
• Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated stem cells. They are the only bone cells that can divide. When they do, they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.

Bone is a very active tissue. It is constantly remodeled by the work of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts continuously make new bone, and osteoclasts keep breaking down bone. This allows for minor repair of bones as well as homeostasis of mineral ions in the blood.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Different types of bones cells have different functions.

Microscopic Anatomy of The Compact Bone

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Macroscopic and microscopic structures of the compact bone tissue.

The basic microscopic unit of bone is an osteon (or Haversian system). Osteons are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several millimeters long and around 0.2 mm in diameter. Each osteon consists of lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal (Haversian canal). The Haversian canal contains the bone’s blood supplies. The boundary of an osteon is called the cement line. Osteons can be arranged into woven bone or lamellar bone. Osteoblasts make the matrix of bone which calcifies hardens. This entraps the mature bone cells, osteocytes, in a little chamber called lacunae. The osteocytes receive their nutrition from the central (Haversian) canal via little canals called canaliculi. All of these structures plus more are visible in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\).

Types of Bones

There are six types of bones in the human body based on their shape or location: long, short, flat, sesamoid, sutural, and irregular bones. You can see an example of each type of bone in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\).

• Long bones are characterized by a shaft that is much longer than it is wide and by a rounded head at each end of the shaft. Long bones are made mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of spongy bone and marrow. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones.
• Short bones are roughly cube-shaped and have only a thin layer of cortical bone surrounding a spongy bone interior. The bones of the wrists and ankles are short bones.
• Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum (breast bone).
• Sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons, the connective tissues that bind muscles to bones. Sesamoid bones hold tendons farther away from joints so the angle of the tendons is increased, thus increasing the leverage of muscles. The patella (knee cap) is an example of a sesamoid bone.
• Sutural bones are very small bones that are located between the major bones of the skull, within the joints (sutures) between the larger bones. They are not always present.
• Irregular bones are those that do not fit into any of the above categories. They generally consist of thin layers of cortical bone surrounding a spongy bone interior. Their shapes are irregular and complicated. Examples of irregular bones include the vertebrae and the bones of the pelvis.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): six types of bones classified by shape or location.

Feature: Reliable Sources

Diseased or damaged bone marrow can be replaced by donated bone marrow cells, which help treat and often cure many life-threatening conditions, including leukemia, lymphoma, sickle cell anemia, and thalassemia. If a bone marrow transplant is successful, the new bone marrow will start making healthy blood cells and improve the patient’s condition.

Learn more about bone marrow donation, and consider whether you might want to do it yourself. Find reliable sources to answer the following questions:

1. How does one become a potential bone marrow donor?
2. Who can and who cannot donate bone marrow?
3. How is a bone marrow donation made?
4. What risks are there in donating bone marrow?

Review

1. Describe osseous tissue.
2. Why are bones hard but not brittle?
3. Compare and contrast the two main types of osseous tissue.
4. What non-osseous tissues are found in bones?
5. List four types of bone cells and their functions.
6. Identify six types of bones, and give an example of each type.
7. True or False. Spongy bone tissue is another name for bone marrow.
8. True or False. Periosteum covers osseous tissue.
9. Compare and contrast yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow.
10. Which bone is mostly made of cortical bone tissue?

    A. Pelvis

    B. Vertebrae

    C. Femur

    D. Carpal

11. a. Which type of bone cell divides to produce new bone cells?

    b. Where is this cell type located?

12. Where do osteoblasts and osteocytes come from, and how are they related to each other?
13. Which type of bone is embedded in tendons?
14. True or False. Calcium is the only mineral in bones.

Explore More

Watch this entertaining and fast-paced Crash Course video to further explore bone structure:

Check out this video to learn more about bone remodeling:

Bone Anatomy | Ask A Biologist

Bone Basics and Bone Anatomy

Have you ever seen fossil remains of dinosaur and ancient human bones in textbooks, television, or in person at a museum? It’s easy to look at these and think of bones as dry, dead sticks in your body, but this couldn’t be further from the truth. Bones are made of active, living cells that are busy growing, repairing themselves, and communicating with other parts of the body. Lets take a closer look at what your bones do and how they do it.

How Many Bones Are in the Human Body?

The skeleton of an adult human is made up of 206 bones of many different shapes and sizes. Added together, your bones make up about 15% of your body weight. Newborn babies are actually born with many more bones than this (around 300), but many bones grow together, or fuse, as babies become older. Some bones are long and thick, like your thigh bones. Others are thin, flat, and wide, like your shoulder blades.

The adult human skeleton has 206 bones. Click on the image to see a larger version.

Support: Like a house is built around a supportive frame, a strong skeleton is required to support the rest of the human body. Without bones, it would be difficult for your body to keep its shape and to stand upright.

Protection: Bones form a strong layer around some of the organs in your body, helping to keep them safe when you fall down or get hurt. Your rib cage, for example, acts like a shield around your chest to protect important organs inside such as your lungs and heart. Your brain is another organ that needs a lot of protection. The thick bone layer of your skull protects your brain. For this purpose, being “thick-headed” is a very good thing.

Movement: Many of your bones fit together like the pieces of a puzzle. Each bone has a very specific shape which often matches up with neighboring bones. The place where two bones meet to allow your body to bend is called a joint.

How many different ways can you move your joints? Some bones, like your elbow, fit together like a hinge that lets you bend your arm in one specific direction. Other bones fit together like a ball and socket, such as the joint between your shoulder and arm. This type of joint lets you rotate your shoulder in many directions, or swing it all the way around in a circle like softball pitchers do.

The movement of our bodies is possible because of both joints and muscles. Muscles often attach to two different bones, so that when the muscle flexes and shortens, the bones move. This allows you to bend your elbows and knees, or pick up objects. A skeleton has plenty of joints, but without muscles, there is nothing to pull the bones in different directions. More than half of the bones in your body are actually located in your hands and feet. These bones are attached to many little muscles that give you very exact control over how you move your fingers and feet.

Examples of the different kinds of joints in your body.

Blood Cell Formation: Did you know that most of the red and white blood cells in your body were created inside of your bones? This is done by a special group of cells called stem cells that are found mostly in the bone marrow, which is the innermost layer of your bones.

Storage: Bones are like a warehouse that stores fat and many important minerals so they are available when your body needs them. These minerals are continuously being recycled through your bones–deposited and then taken out and moved through the bloodstream to get to other parts of your body where they are needed.

Cross section of a bone.

What Are Your Bones Made Of?

Now that you know what bones do, let’s take a look at what they’re made of and their anatomy.

Each bone in your body is made up of three main types of bone material: compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow.

Cross section showing osteons. The large dark spots are passages for blood vessels and nerves. The little black spots are osteocytes.

Compact Bone

Compact bone is the heaviest, hardest type of bone. It needs to be very strong as it supports your body and muscles as you walk, run, and move throughout the day. About 80% of the bone in your body is compact. It makes up the outer layer of the bone and also helps protect the more fragile layers inside.

If you were to look at a piece of compact bone without the help of a microscope, it would seem to be completely solid all the way through. If you looked at it through a microscope, however, you would see that it’s actually filled with many very tiny passages, or canals, for nerves and blood vessels. Compact bone is made of special cells called osteocytes. These cells are lined up in rings around the canals. Together, a canal and the osteocytes that surround it are called osteons. Osteons are like thick tubes all going the same direction inside the bone, similar to a bundle of straws with blood vessels, veins, and nerves in the center.

Looking at the osteons in bone (A) under a microscope reveals tube-like osteons (B) made up of osteocytes (C). These bone cells have long branching arms (D) which lets them communicate with other cells. 

Spongy Bone

Close up view of spongy bone.

Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and joints. About 20% of the bone in your body is spongy. Unlike compact bone that is mostly solid, spongy bone is full of open sections called pores. If you were to look at it in under a microscope, it would look a lot like your kitchen sponge. Pores are filled with marrow, nerves, and blood vessels that carry cells and nutrients in and out of the bone. Though spongy bone may remind you of a kitchen sponge, this bone is quite solid and hard, and is not squishy at all.

Bone Marrow

The inside of your bones are filled with a soft tissue called marrow. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red bone marrow is where all new red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are made. Platelets are small pieces of cells that help you stop bleeding when you get a cut. Red bone marrow is found in the center of flat bones such as your shoulder blades and ribs. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat and is found in the hollow centers of long bones, such as the thigh bones. It does not make blood cells or platelets. Both yellow and red bone marrow have many small and large blood vessels and veins running through them to let nutrients and waste in and out of the bone.

When you were born, all of the marrow in your body was red marrow, which made lots and lots of blood cells and platelets to help your body grow bigger. As you got older, more and more of the red marrow was replaced with yellow marrow. The bone marrow of full grown adults is about half red and half yellow.

The Inside Story

Bones are made of four main kinds of cells: osteoclasts, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and lining cells. Notice that three of these cell type names start with ‘osteo.’ This is the Greek word for bone. When you see ‘osteo’ as part of a word, it lets you know that the word has something to do with bones.

It’s not completely understood how bone cells in your body are able to work together and stay organized, but pressure and stress on the bone might have something to do with it.

Bone Facts

The smallest bone in the human body is called the stirrup bone, located deep inside the ear. It’s only about 3 millimeters long in an adult.

The longest bone in the human is called the femur, or thigh bone. It’s the bone in your leg that goes from your hip to your knee. In an average adult, it’s about 20 inches long.

References:

Marieb. E.N. (1989) Human Anatomy and Physiology, CA: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc

Heller, H.C., Orians, G.H., Purves, W.K., Sadava, D. (2003) Life: The Science of Biology, 7th Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. & W. H. Freeman and Company

Skeleton Image: By Lady of Hats – Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, via Wikimedia Commons.

90,000 The structure and composition of the bone – a lesson. Biology, Human (grade 8).

Bone is the basic structural unit of the skeleton.

The structure and composition of bone tissue

In bone formation, the main role belongs to connective bone tissue .

Bone tissue includes:

• cells – osteocytes;
• intercellular substance.

The intercellular substance is very dense, which gives the bone tissue mechanical strength.

Osteocytes are surrounded by the smallest “tubules” with intercellular fluid through which the bone cells are nourished and breathed. Nerves and blood vessels pass through the bone canals.

Fig. \(1\). The structure of bone tissue

Hardness gives bones the presence of inorganic substances in their composition: mineral salts of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium.

Flexibility and elasticity are given by organic substances.

The strength of the bone is provided by a combination of hardness and elasticity. The bones of a growing organism are more flexible, the bones of an adult (but not an old) person are more durable.

The composition of the bone and the properties of the substances that form it can be experimentally proven.

The properties of organic matter can be determined by combustion. With prolonged calcination of the bone, organic compounds are burned.The bone becomes fragile, crumbles when touched into many small particles. The residues are composed of inorganic compounds. This means that in the absence of organic matter, the bone loses its flexibility and elasticity.

Properties of minerals can be established by immersion in hydrochloric acid solution for several days. Inorganic salts dissolve in hydrochloric acid and are washed out of the bone. The bone becomes flexible, it can be tied in a knot. This means that in the absence of inorganic salts, the bone loses its hardness.

Fig. \ (2 \). Decalcified bone

Types of bones and their structure

Each bone is a complex organ that has its own structure, location and meaning.

By shape, bones are divided into:

• tubular;
• spongy;
• flat;
• mixed.

Let’s consider the structure of tubular bones using the example of the femur.

Fig.\ (3 \) . The structure of the tubular bone

In the external structure of the long tubular bone, the body of the bone (diaphysis) and two terminal articular heads (epiphyses) can be distinguished.

The epiphyses of the tubular bone are covered with cartilage. Epiphyseal cartilage is located between the body and the heads, which ensures the growth of bone in length .

Inside the bone there is a cavity (canal) with yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue), which gave the name to such bones – tubular.The epiphyses of the femur are represented by spongy substance.

The body of the bone (diaphysis) is formed inside by a spongy substance, outside by a thick plate of compact substance and covered with a membrane – the periosteum.

Blood vessels and nerve endings are located in the periosteum, due to which it provides bone growth in thickness , nutrition, bone fusion after fractures. The periosteum is absent on the articular heads (epiphyses).

Sources:

Fig.1. The structure of the bone tissue: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-vector/threedimensional-diagram-bone-structure-600w-1112885651.jpg

Fig. 2. Decalcified bone: © YaKlass

Fig. 3. The structure of the tubular bone: © YaKlass

Maintaining bone health is a vital step in the health of the whole body

Bones play many roles in the body, building the skeleton of the body, protecting internal organs, helping body muscles and storing calcium.Building healthy and strong bones is very important during childhood and adolescence, but important steps can be taken for bone health in adulthood.

Why is bone health important?

Bone growth occurs in three main stages as we age: (1) growth, (2) modeling or stabilization, and (3) Reconstruction. The first and second stages occur more rapidly during childhood and adolescence, and bone mass increases rapidly at this age. In adulthood, the regenerative phase predominates, which is accompanied by resorption, analysis and replacement of bone tissue.

Bone density also depends on various factors, including genetics and various environmental factors. The peak of bone mass formation occurs at about 30 years, after which only bone regeneration continues. But the amount of bone being replaced is less than before, so the risk of developing osteoporosis is higher. For this reason, the greater the accumulation of bone mass at a young age, the lower the risk of developing osteoporosis. But it’s better to delve deeper into these issues.

Meet the Bone

The structure and physiology of bones

At first glance, our skeleton may seem like a non-dynamic part, but the same structure consists of tissues and cells that are constantly working.65% of bone tissue is composed of inorganic minerals that cause bone stiffness. The most important minerals in bone are calcium and phosphorus. In addition, ions of magnesium, sodium, potassium and citrate are also present in the bone structure.

The remaining 35% of bone tissue is organic protein matrix, 90% of which is collagen matrix of the first type. These collagen fibers wrap around each other to form an inner scaffold on which bone minerals are deposited.The remaining ten percent of this matrix contains various proteins that are not collagen.

Types of bone tissue

Bone has two types of tissue. Cortical membrane and trabecular part (spongy).

Eighty percent of the cortical skeleton forms the outer surface of all bones. Cortical bone appears dense and hard, but it actually has microscopic pores through which arteries and nerves pass.

Another 20% of the bone is trabecular tissue, which is located at the ends of long bones and inside smooth bones (skull, pelvis, sternum, ribs and scapula) and vertebrae.These two types of fabrics are different in terms of porosity and microstructure. For example, trabecular bones are less dense and have a larger surface area.

Stages of bone formation and reconstruction

Bone growth has three distinct stages. Growth, modeling (consolidation) and reconstruction

Bone size increases during the growth phase. This growth is very rapid, especially from birth to two years of age. It continues more slowly during childhood and adolescence and usually stops in the early twenties.Of course, this cessation only includes longitudinal growth, but it will continue to change shape and thickness at an older age. Simulation during this time period occurs concurrently with growth. In fact, this is the age when bone mass is formed and completed.

The regenerative stage includes a steady process of bone tissue resorption, which is formed in adulthood and continues throughout life. This usually starts around the age of 34.At this stage, the rate of bone resorption is higher than bone formation, which leads to bone loss with age.

Minerals for bones

Several minerals play a direct role in the formation and structure of hydroxyapatite crystals. Other nutrients play an indirect role as cofactors or regulators of bone cell activity.

Calcium

About 99% of calcium in the body is contained in bones and teeth, and another 1% – in blood and soft tissues.The concentration of calcium in the blood must be maintained in a certain amount in order for the physiological functions of the organs of the body to be normal. For example, the amount of calcium influences muscle contraction, contraction and dilation of blood vessels. If dietary calcium intake is insufficient, the blood uses the calcium in the bones to maintain adequate calcium levels.

The corresponding amount of calcium for men between the ages of 19 and 70 is 1000 mg per day and over 70 is 1200 mg per day, and for women between the ages of 10 and 50 is 1000 mg per day and over 50 is 1200 mg in a day.

Phosphorus

More than half of the mineral mass of bone consists of phosphorus, which, in combination with calcium, forms hydroxyapatite crystals. In addition, phosphorus plays an important role in bone matrix and bone stiffness. Due to its outstanding functions in bone tissue, phosphorus deficiency can lead to bone defects. However, in healthy people, phosphorus deficiency is rare, and there is little evidence that phosphorus deficiency affects the incidence of osteoporosis. The recommended amount of phosphorus for men and women over 19 years old is 700 mg per day.

Other trace elements

There are other trace minerals that are essential for bone health. Including fluoride , which requires four milligrams per day for men and three milligrams per day for women.

For bone health, the amount of magnesium required for men aged 19 to 30 is 400 mg per day, and over 31 years old – 420 mg per day, and for women aged 19 to 30 years – 310 mg per day, and over 31 years old – 320 mg per day. This is the very day.

The required amount of sodium for women and men is 1500 mg per day, and the amount of potassium for men is 3400 mg, and for women 2600 mg per day.

Vitamin D is 15 micrograms per day for people between the ages of 19 and 70 and 20 micrograms per day for those over 70. In addition, men need 120 micrograms per day and women need 90 micrograms Vitamin K for bone health. Vitamin A for men and 900 mcg for women and 700 mcg vitamin C for men is 90 mg per day, and for women 70 mg per day.

Problems due to lack of minerals and trace elements on the bones

Lack of minerals and the body’s inability to absorb these nutrients cause bone degeneration and some bone diseases.

Osteomalacia

Osteomalacia, also called adult rickets; the body’s inability to absorb minerals is due to cravings. Osteomalacia is caused by a lack of vitamin D and an inability to absorb calcium and phosphorus in the small intestine. This deficiency leads to incomplete formation of the bone matrix, as a result of which the bones become soft and unable to support body weight.Under these conditions, bones will deform due to body weight.

Osteopenia

Apex of osteoporosis, but in the early stages. In fact, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), osteopenia is the pre-osteoporosis stage that occurs when a person’s BMD is between minus 1 and minus 2.5.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a severe stage of bone resorption in which bones are extremely fragile. Osteoporosis is diagnosed by BMD when the score is less than 2.5.the lower this number, the greater the osteoporosis and the twice the risk of bone fractures.

What Factors Affect Bone Health?

60 to 80 percent of bone density is determined by genetics, while 20 to 40 percent depends on lifestyle such as diet and physical activity. In short, the factors that affect bone health are:

Racial and Family History: Whites and Asians are more prone to osteoporosis than other races.In addition, having family members with a history of osteoporosis increases the risk of osteoporosis in some family members.

Diet Calcium: A low calcium diet reduces bone density, premature bone loss and increases the risk of fractures.

Physical activity: people who are physically inactive are at a higher risk of developing osteoporosis than those who are more active.

Smoking and alcohol: studies show that tobacco and alcohol use weakens bones.

Gender: Women are more prone to osteoporosis than men because their bone tissue is less dense.

Body Size: People who are very thin (with a BMI of 19 or less) or people with a smaller build are more at risk of osteoporosis because their bone mass decreases with age.

Age: Naturally, bones become thinner and weaker with age.

Hormone levels: Excess thyroid hormone causes bone loss.In women, the incidence of osteoporosis increases dramatically during menstruation due to a decrease in estrogen levels. Menstruation at long intervals before menopause has the same effect. In men, low testosterone levels can lead to bone loss.

Medicines: Corticosteroids such as prednisone, cortisone, prednisolone and dexamethasone can damage bones with prolonged use. Other drugs that can increase the risk of osteoporosis include aromatase inhibitors for breast cancer, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, methotrexate, and some anticonvulsants such as phenytoin (dilantin) and phenobarbital.

Eating Disorders: People with anorexia or binge eating are at risk of developing osteoporosis. In addition, gastrectomy, weight loss surgery, and conditions such as Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, and Cushing’s disease can affect the body’s ability to absorb calcium.

What are some ways to protect your bones?

Bone protection can be done in very simple ways.

The inclusion of calcium in the diet

The recommended amount of calcium for people aged 19 to 50 and men 51 to 70 is 1000 mg per day.This amount is 1200 mg per day for women over 50 and for men over 70. This amount of calcium can be obtained from dairy products, almonds, broccoli, kale, canned salmon, sardines, and soy products such as tofu. Otherwise, you can take calcium supplements as recommended by your healthcare professional.

Don’t forget about vitamin D.

The body needs vitamin D to absorb calcium. For people between the ages of 19 and 70, the daily intake of vitamin D is 600 units (IU) per day, and for older people over 71, it reaches 800 units per day.

Good sources of vitamin D include oily fish such as salmon, salmon, whitefish and tuna. In addition, mushrooms, eggs, and fortified foods such as milk and grains are good sources of vitamin D. Sunlight also helps the body produce vitamin D. If you’re worried about getting enough vitamin D, you can take supplements.

Daily schedule exercises include

Exercise that keeps body weight on the bones helps to strengthen the bones.Walking, jogging, climbing stairs, strength training with weights, balance exercises and Tai Chi make bones stronger and slower in their analysis and emptiness.

Live a healthy life

Substance use, smoking and alcohol consumption have a detrimental effect on bones. Eliminate them or minimize their consumption.

Bone health improves quality of life

Bones of the body, In addition to strengthening the body, they allow us to move.They protect the internal organs of the body such as the brain, heart and other organs of the body. They are storage centers for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which, in addition to strengthening bones, are released into the bloodstream when needed and used by other parts of the body.

There are many things you can do to keep your bones healthy and strong. Eating foods rich in calcium and vitamin D, exercising a lot, and having good health habits help keep bones healthy.

Without proper nutrition, poor physical activity weakens bones and leads to osteoporosis, which in severe stages causes bone fractures, sometimes surgery and the use of appropriate bone protection are required to improve the condition. For this reason, bone health should be a priority.

What are you doing to keep your bones healthy? Please comment for us.

How bone augmentation is done before implantation – photos, reviews, prices

Implantation is the “gold standard” in the replacement of missing teeth.However, most patients – from 70 to 90% for the upper jaw and up to 50% – for the lower jaw, need bone augmentation before. An artificial increase in tissue volume is required for those patients who have no teeth for more than 2 months. Unfortunately, most of them have much longer periods, up to 10 or more years. In such cases, various bone grafting operations come to the rescue.

Bone augmentation during dental implantation – what is the essence?

Previously, insufficient bone volume was a contraindication for implantation.Now, thanks to various techniques, it is possible to achieve the desired volume and fully functioning throughout the entire service life.

Of course, the need to increase bone volume increases the cost of implantation. The effect is worth it, because when building tissue, special stimulators of its growth are added to its own bone. There are several techniques. We have presented them in the table:

What materials are used for bone augmentation?

• Own
• Donor
• Animals – Pork or Bovine
• Synthetic filler granules

In addition, special biocompatible screws for fixation, self-absorbable membranes, gum substitutes and others are used.What material and technique to choose to restore the lost bone tissue and make it affordable, the doctor decides during a detailed examination. We have the opportunity to order any materials and consumables for any, even the most difficult cases.

Tissue augmentation – risks

Like any other surgery, this one comes with risks of inflammation, infection, and bleeding. With the right choice of methodology and strict adherence to all requirements for its implementation, the risks are reduced to zero.Mild swelling and slight soreness for several days after the intervention are considered normal.

Who should be entrusted with the operation to increase the volume of bone tissue? Those who:

Bones for dogs from tendons for cleaning teeth, pressed and gelatinous

Bones for dogs are definitely worth buying because it is a tasty treat, and no dog will refuse it. But if real bones can damage the oral cavity or digestive organs, then special chewing bones from the tendons are absolutely safe for the pet.

Benefits and benefits of bones for dogs

• Suitable for animals from three months of age.
• Helps puppies massage their gums, so bones for young dogs make it easier to cope with changing teeth.
• There are no sharp tubular elements in the bones from the veins that can damage the oral cavity or digestive organs of the animal.
• Dog Bones for cleaning teeth help freshen breath, get rid of tartar, remove plaque, reduce the likelihood of caries and other dental problems.
• When there is a lack of vitamins, the bone for dogs serves as their source. When chewing it, collagen and elastin fibers enter the body, which have a beneficial effect on the condition of the cartilage tissue of the dog’s joints, as well as enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, and calcium.
• When chewing, the maxillofacial muscles receive the necessary load, the animal forms a correct bite.
• Low-calorie product, the use of which does not affect the weight of the pet.
• Used as an incentive.
• Among all the variety of treats for dogs, bones, not only are an addition to the diet, but also perform a play function – gnawing a bone, a dog can find entertainment for several hours.

Composition of bones for dogs

Manufacturers try to bring the finished product as close as possible in shape and composition to real bones, which representatives of all breeds love to gnaw.

• Pressed bones are worth buying for those dogs that are accustomed to natural bones.They are absolutely safe, unlike real ones, which are capable of breaking into sharp tubular fragments. Pressed bones are prepared from bone mass, which is pre-dried and specially processed. They are easily gnawed and well absorbed by the body.
• Tendon bones for dogs supplemented with vitamins. Manufacturers enrich the ground pressed beef skin with calcium.
• Bones from veins for dogs, supplemented with appetizing fillers – beef stomach, lamb, duck meat.

Dog Bone Makers

To keep your teeth healthy, choose products from trusted brands for your pet.

The Triol dog bone contains iron, calcium and phosphorus in addition to veins and by-products. The addition of a small amount of duck or chicken to the product stimulates chewing.

Company TiTBiT adds not only leather, but also brewer’s yeast, chitosan, cottage cheese, cheese, rose hips, salmon to the bone for dogs for teeth.Turkey, pieces of lamb or veal are used as meat fillers.

The brand “ 8 in 1 ” produces a low-calorie product that, in addition to rawhide, contains some beef and chicken meat.

The choice of such an appetizing toothpick largely depends on the size of the four-legged friend – small compressed treats are more suitable for small pets, and large dogs can grind their teeth on dried beef skin tied at the ends with knots.

In our online store “12 monkeys” you can buy dog ​​bones for teeth with home delivery at a low price.Bonuses accrued automatically with each purchase will definitely bring you to us again. The accumulated “monkeys” can be spent to pay for the purchase of pet supplies from us. Thus, even an expensive product can be purchased by you for FREE or simply for cheap. Really nice?

London Museum, in the basements of which there are 20,000 skeletons

• Amanda Ruggeri
• BBC Future

15 November 2016

Photo by Amanda Ruggeri

Observer talks about one of the BBC Future popular tourist attractions in London, where thousands of skeletons of people who once lived in this city are kept.Some of them, despite their centuries-old age, are able to help modern medicine.

Strolling through the halls of the Museum of London, visitors view exhibits from Roman villas, medieval weapons and Victorian carriages.

Few of them know that deep below, in the basements of the museum, reminiscent of a bunker, there is a collection of a completely different kind.

In a building with concrete walls (no unauthorized entry), there is a storage facility with many shelves filled with cardboard boxes.These are usually used to pack things when moving.

But these boxes are for something completely different. Neat handwriting on each one reads “Human Skeleton.” Sometimes there is also the inscription “skeleton of a child”.

This is the warehouse of the Center for Human Bioarcheology, located at the museum. The remains of more than 20,000 people are stored here.

“This is probably the world’s largest single collection of human remains from different periods of history, stored in one city,” says Elena Bekvalats, curator of the center and specialist in human osteology.

Here are the skeletons of people who lived in London at almost every stage of its history – from the Roman era to the mid-19th century. Thanks to them, archaeologists were able to learn a lot about the past of London.

Photo author, Amanda Ruggeri

Photo caption,

Under the Museum of London is a vault with many shelves filled with boxes of human bones (Bubonic plague pandemic – Approx.translator) life in the city practically stopped.

In fact, excavations have shown that the victims of the plague were not buried spontaneously, but in neat graves in consecrated ground.

The myth that people used to have much worse teeth than they are now was also destroyed. It turned out that those who lived in the Middle Ages could boast of the healthiest teeth, largely due to the absence of refined sugar.

However, this is all about the past. But a new project dedicated to the study of bones will help us learn a lot about the health of modern people.

A group of researchers led by Bekvalatz, using the available skeletons, hopes to understand how industrialization has affected the health status of Londoners, and how this influence may manifest itself in the future.

City-cemetery

This is a very broad question, the answer to which can be found with an equally large sample – like the one that is now in the center.

“The scale is really important,” says osteologist Elizabeth Craig-Atkins of Sheffield University, who is not involved in the project.- The dataset on the skeletal remains of people, especially those who once lived in London, is very large, and it has only grown over the past decades. That is why such research has now become possible. “

There are many reasons why a collection of this size was collected in London. Firstly, over the centuries of this city’s existence many thousands of people were buried in its land.

Equally important and the fact that the remains of many of them were discovered during the continuous development of the city.

Photo author, Amanda Ruggeri

Photo caption,

In the office of the osteological department of the Museum of London, all the shelves are filled with boxes of human bones

When constructing a building or railway tracks, it is always necessary to carry out preliminary excavations in order to prevent damage to key objects and simply to preserve archaeological finds.

It does not matter whether a new object is being built on the site of ancient burials or not. The museum’s chief archeologist, Roy Stevenson, says churches often take the initiative to sell their cemetery lands.

“The previous government decided to end its work with an ambitious school modernization program. In London, schools are often attached to churches, so the area of ​​school grounds has been expanded several times to include cemeteries adjacent to the church,” he says.

“In many cases, playgrounds were built on these lands,” adds Bekvalac.

When you hear this, you immediately imagine children playing classics and catching up over human remains.(This is exactly what happened in the Bethnal Green area, where 959 skeletons were found under the playground of an Anglican elementary school in 2011).

Sometimes the remains are reburied – if they are only a small part of the skeleton. This happens not only with the remains found at the site of future construction, but also with those that were found during targeted archaeological excavations.

The fact is that the site set aside for excavation has clear boundaries, beyond which archaeologists are forbidden to go, even if this means that half of the skeleton will have to be left in the ground.

Reburial is also done when there are still soft tissues on the bones. According to the Law on the Use of Human Tissue, archaeologists are not allowed to work with such skeletons.

However, in a city as rich in burials as London, there are still a huge number of skeletons that can be considered archaeological finds.

Photo author, Amanda Ruggeri

Photo caption,

Bones laid out for the X-ray procedure

And for those found within the City of London – the historic center of a modern metropolis – the Museum of London is usually responsible.

Despite the ban on the use of soft tissues, the center is not only stored bones. “We have samples of hair and nails, because sometimes there are unusual burials, where the remains are no longer soft tissue, but there is a fine, thick head of hair,” says Bekvalats.

“We have several nails with neat manicure. And once during the excavation process in a cemetery, we found hair, but without a body – just a braid. Such finds usually date back to the early Middle Ages.”

Material for Research

All this gives scientists the opportunity to implement projects like this one. Researchers plan to analyze 1,500 skeletons from the London collection by 2018 and compare them with skeletons found outside the capital.

The owners of a thousand of them lived before the industrial revolution, the rest – in the period from the 18th to the 19th century.

Because researchers use the same clinical examinations as modern physicians, namely radiography and computed tomography, they can compare their findings with medical evidence up to the present day.

Modern life has a huge impact on our health, but it is not yet known exactly how.

In Britain, the industrial revolution has improved sanitation, free health care and increased life expectancy.

However, the incidence of diseases such as obesity and diabetes has increased, and other factors affecting health such as environmental pollution have worsened.

One way to study the effects of industrialization is to compare the health status of people before and after it.

But this is often difficult to do. Certain information can be obtained from the records and archives of doctors of the past.

However, since then, medical terminology has changed, and a lot of new knowledge about diseases has appeared, and therefore it can be difficult to determine what a person was sick with – at least in the modern sense.

Luckily, we have bones for that.

By looking at the femur or the phalanx of the finger, osteologists can diagnose a long-dead patient.

So, for example, lobular bumpy areas can indicate a varicose ulcer, uneven edges of the vertebrae – on joint destruction, and smooth areas – on osteoarthritis (when rubbing, the bones are polished one another).

During a tour of the warehouse, Bekvalac demonstrated how much information skeletons can give us.

The curator, who has a bracelet in the form of small skulls on her arm and who calls the skeletons “beautiful” (for example, “we have a lovely guy here named Nicholas Adams with beautiful hair”), laid out the skeleton of a man who died in 1348 on the table …

Author of the photo, Amanda Ruggeri

Caption,

On the pelvic bones of this man, whose life in 1348 was carried away by the “Black Death”, there are green spots that appeared due to the peculiarities of the burial place

He was buried in the East Smithfield cemetery , where in the 1980s. excavations were carried out by archaeologists at the Museum of London.

Based on the burial site, archaeologists immediately concluded how he died. They knew that this cemetery dates back to the Middle Ages, and, according to archival data, the Bishop of London, having learned that the “Black Death” was spreading across continental Europe, bought this land in advance in order to later use it for burials in the event of an epidemic.

When the plague reached Britain, it was there that 2,400 of its victims found their last refuge, including this man. (Later, in 2011, DNA tests confirmed that these people were indeed carriers of the bacterium that causes the plague.)

But even if the bubonic plague did cause his death, it was not his only problem.

“See, he has grooves here,” says Bekvalats, running his finger along the tibia.

“A person has a connective tissue that covers the bone – the periosteum,” she explains.“If an infection gets into it, or it becomes inflamed, such injuries appear on the bone.”

“Seeing them, we understand that the infection was there, but it passed. And if this area were gray and with small intertwined lines, one could say that the infection was still active at the time of death. “

Photo author, Amanda Ruggeri

Photo caption,

radiography

However, not everything can be seen with the naked eye.So, for example, damage to the bone could appear after burial, and not before it.

Some of them are obvious and look rather strange. So, for example, there are green spots on the pelvic bones of the skeleton lying in front of us.

Bekvalats explains that in some cases they appear after death due to the fact that a person was buried with a copper hairpin or belt buckle.

But in this case it happened because in the 19th century the Royal Mint worked on the site of this cemetery.

“Waste from minting coins was thrown here, and all the skeletons turned green,” says Bekvalats. “And bones can also absorb various substances. Sometimes it is diesel or gasoline and other disgusting substances.”

“You can hardly imagine anything more unpleasant than a human skeleton soaked in diesel fuel. I remember we found these in a monastery in Newcastle. The smell was just awful,” Stevenson adds, referring to the excavations on the territory of the Dominican monastery dating back to the 13th century.

Modern medicine will help

“With the help of analysis, we can only identify serious diseases – for example, those from which a person has suffered for a long time, or injuries like fractures,” says Bekvalac.

“If the disease proceeded quickly and in an acute form, and because of it the person died, we will not be able to recognize it,” she continues.

That is why modern medical technologies are capable of providing invaluable assistance to scientists.DNA analysis provided completely new data, allowing researchers to verify that the skeletons found in the East Smithfield cemetery did indeed contain the bacterium Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of the bubonic plague.

Photo author, Amanda Ruggeri

Photo caption,

A specialist prepares the skull for radiography

A team of scientists has attracted a specialist in the field of clinical radiography to participate in this project.

In her daily practice, she diagnoses diseases considered to be the result of modern lifestyles, including tumors, osteoporosis and frontal internal hyperostosis.

Coming to the vault again, I watch her carefully lay out the bones on the board.

The picture has been taken and we see a skull on the computer screen. Like the remains of all the other individuals selected for this study, it will also be included in a single database available to those who are related to the science of the human body – archaeologists, medical students, as well as anyone interested in the past and present.

In the meantime, from the skull that I see on the screen, carefully scanned with the help of modern medical technology, it is completely impossible to understand whether it belongs to someone who lived recently or to someone who died 500 years ago.

A 1.4 million year old bone ax found in Africa – Russian newspaper

An international team of researchers from Japan, Hong Kong and Ethiopia discovered a rare bone ax, which, in their opinion, was made by one of the human ancestors about 1.4 million years old back.

Research published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and briefly covered by Phys.org.

A unique artifact was discovered in Ethiopia during excavations in a place called Konso Gardula.Earlier, in the same area, scientists discovered several axes, which were made by representatives of the human species Homo erectus. All of these tools were made of stone.

However, in this case, the weapon turned out to be made of bone. This is just the second Homo erectus bone ax known to science. Analysis showed that its age is about 1.4 million years. Laboratory research helped determine that the artifact was made from a hippopotamus femur.

The ax was oval in shape and was approximately 13 centimeters long.Only one edge turned out to be sharp. Probably, the ancient master used another tool for sharpening, presumably a stone one.

By its construction, the bone ax is similar to the stone axes found here earlier. However, their manufacturing techniques were probably slightly different. Stone tools were made in a rather primitive way. It was enough for the master to split the stone with one strong and sharp blow. The result was a sharp cutting edge. If it was not possible to do this with one blow, a second blow followed, followed, if necessary, again and again.

In the case of the bone ax, apparently, the master had to work longer, because the bone cannot be sharpened with one or two blows. It required an effort, it was monotonous work.

By the way, microscopic analysis showed that the bone ax was used more than once for its intended purpose. Scientists have found characteristic chips and scratches on its surface. Researchers suggest that the tool was used to butcher the carcasses of hunting animals.

Its design also indicates that Homo erectus were quite adept at making tools.And this, in turn, is a sign that they were smart enough and developed.

Researchers, however, have not yet been able to explain why the ancient master decided to use the hippopotamus bone instead of a much harder and more reliable stone.

Corpse Day The houses of Russians are stuffed with bones, skulls and mummies. This is very creepy !: Home: Habitat: Lenta.ru

Horror fans who are bored with standard directorial moves may just need to start a home renovation.And it’s not just about the inevitable revival of relations with neighbors. As practice shows, in the course of work, the tickling nerves of the find are often found.

Sometimes these are old mines or shells from the Second World War, and sometimes something worse.

The classics of finds during repairs are skulls, bones and skeletons. One of these “surprises” was discovered in St. Petersburg at the end of June 2018. A team of repairmen repaired the floors, and under one of them – in the kitchen – they found parts of a human skeleton: costal and intervertebral bones.

A similar incident occurred in 2018 in Moscow: while renovating an apartment in 2nd Raushsky Lane, builders found a human skull. The remains were also under the floor and would have lain there for an unknown amount of time if the team had not been instructed to replace the water pipes. The owner of the apartment, in any case, lived with the skull under the floor for at least eight years.

Photo: Andrew Winning / Reuters

It would seem that the risk of finding someone’s remains applies exclusively to secondary housing – skeletons in the closet are hiding only in houses with history.But similar finds are being made in new buildings – more precisely, on construction sites. In the spring of 2018, during landscaping at a construction site on Bolshaya Akademicheskaya Street, three human skulls were found wrapped in a blanket. The “treasure” was dug up by the workers involved in the improvement. According to experts, the state of the remains most likely indicates that people died a violent death.

There are some really terrible cases. At the end of 2017, a woman’s skeleton was found in one of the houses of Pskov.But this time the remains were not found by the repair team – they were seen by one of the local residents. The man drew attention to the fact that a light was on in the window of one of the apartments on the first floor day and night. Looking through the window, the citizen saw a skeletonized body that had been lying undetected for more than one month.

It seems like nowhere could be worse, but the reality never ceases to amaze. One of the residents of Severodvinsk last spring rented an apartment – the house was in a “killed” state, and the realtor told the girl that she had agreed with the owners: the tenant could make repairs at the expense of the rent.

The girl hired a team, which began work by sorting out the rubble. While sorting out the garbage, the workers found a man’s body walled up in the floor in the closet. The floor of the closet was covered with polyurethane foam, revealing men’s boots and brown trousers. The police called to the scene found that the body had been there for about ten years – it was then that the owner of the apartment, who was over 80, disappeared. was listed as the owner of the apartment.It is not clear what caused the apartment agent to lose caution and allow the tenant to independently repair the room where the body was hidden.

Photo: Anatoly Zhdanov / Kommersant

Most often, such finds are found in the apartments of lonely people, whose death or disappearance does not make anyone worry. Moreover, even the smell is not always strong enough to attract the attention of the residents of the house. As forensic scientist Alexei Reshetun told in an interview with Lente.ru, there are frequent cases of mummification in apartments, when the body does not decompose, but dries up.

Usually the neighbors turn to the police in such cases. This happened recently in Ukraine: Kharkov police officers who came to the call found in an apartment littered with garbage not only the body of its owner, but also the mummy of a woman – presumably the wife of the deceased. According to neighbors, she was last seen alive in 2010.

Another case of this kind occurred in the winter of 2018 in Nikolaev. Employees of the State Service of Ukraine for Emergency Situations, called to provide assistance to the immobilized woman, found her mother’s mummy in the apartment.