How many types of antibiotics are there. What are antibiotics used for. What are the common side effects of antibiotics. How does antibiotic resistance develop. When should antibiotics be prescribed. What are the main classes of antibiotics. How do antibiotics interact with other medications.

The Basics of Antibiotics: What You Need to Know

Antibiotics are powerful medications used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria or preventing their growth and reproduction. However, it’s crucial to understand that antibiotics are not effective against viral infections such as colds, flu, and most coughs.

There are hundreds of different types of antibiotics, but they can generally be classified into six main groups. Each group targets bacteria in different ways, making them effective against specific types of infections.

When Are Antibiotics Necessary?

Antibiotics are prescribed when bacterial infections are:

• Unlikely to clear up without treatment
• At risk of spreading to others
• Taking too long to resolve naturally
• Carrying a risk of more serious complications

Additionally, people at high risk of infection may be given antibiotics as a preventive measure, known as antibiotic prophylaxis.

The Six Main Classes of Antibiotics

Understanding the different types of antibiotics can help you better comprehend your treatment options. Here are the six main classes:

1. Penicillins
2. Cephalosporins
3. Aminoglycosides
4. Tetracyclines
5. Macrolides
6. Fluoroquinolones

Each class has its own unique properties and is used to treat specific types of bacterial infections. Your healthcare provider will determine the most appropriate antibiotic based on the type and severity of your infection.

How Do Different Antibiotics Work?

Antibiotics employ various mechanisms to combat bacterial infections. Some antibiotics, like penicillins and cephalosporins, work by interfering with the bacteria’s cell wall synthesis. Others, such as tetracyclines and macrolides, inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria. Understanding these mechanisms can help explain why certain antibiotics are more effective against specific types of bacteria.

Proper Usage of Antibiotics: Ensuring Effectiveness

To maximize the effectiveness of antibiotics and minimize the risk of antibiotic resistance, it’s crucial to use them correctly. Here are some key points to remember:

• Always follow your healthcare provider’s instructions
• Complete the entire course of antibiotics, even if you start feeling better
• Never share antibiotics with others or use leftover antibiotics
• Take antibiotics at regular intervals as prescribed

Is Missing a Dose of Antibiotics Harmful?

If you forget to take a dose of antibiotics, it’s important to take it as soon as you remember. However, if it’s almost time for your next dose, skip the missed dose and continue with your regular schedule. Never take a double dose to make up for a missed one, as this can increase the risk of side effects.

Common Side Effects of Antibiotics: What to Expect

While antibiotics are generally safe when used as directed, they can cause side effects in some people. Common side effects include:

• Nausea and vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Bloating and indigestion
• Skin rashes

Most of these side effects are mild and resolve on their own. However, if you experience severe or persistent side effects, it’s important to contact your healthcare provider.

Can Antibiotics Cause Allergic Reactions?

Some people may experience allergic reactions to certain antibiotics, particularly penicillins and cephalosporins. Symptoms of an allergic reaction can range from mild skin rashes to severe anaphylaxis, a life-threatening emergency. If you develop signs of a severe allergic reaction, such as difficulty breathing or swelling of the face and throat, seek immediate medical attention.

Antibiotic Resistance: A Growing Concern

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria evolve to become less susceptible to antibiotics. This is a significant global health concern, as it can lead to infections that are difficult or impossible to treat. Several factors contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance:

• Overuse and misuse of antibiotics
• Incorrect dosing or incomplete courses of antibiotics
• Use of antibiotics in agriculture and livestock
• Lack of new antibiotic development

How Can We Combat Antibiotic Resistance?

Combating antibiotic resistance requires a multifaceted approach. Healthcare providers play a crucial role by prescribing antibiotics only when necessary and selecting the most appropriate antibiotic for each situation. Patients can contribute by using antibiotics responsibly and completing prescribed courses. Additionally, research into new antibiotics and alternative treatments is essential to address this growing problem.

Interactions Between Antibiotics and Other Medications

Antibiotics can interact with various medications, potentially affecting their effectiveness or increasing the risk of side effects. Some common interactions include:

• Oral contraceptives: Some antibiotics may reduce the effectiveness of birth control pills
• Blood thinners: Certain antibiotics can increase the effect of blood-thinning medications
• Antacids: These can interfere with the absorption of some antibiotics
• Alcohol: Combining alcohol with certain antibiotics can cause adverse reactions

Why Is It Important to Inform Your Healthcare Provider About All Medications You’re Taking?

Disclosing all medications, including over-the-counter drugs and supplements, to your healthcare provider is crucial. This information helps them select the most appropriate antibiotic and adjust dosages if necessary to avoid potential interactions. It’s also important to read the information leaflet that comes with your antibiotics and discuss any concerns with your pharmacist or doctor.

Special Considerations for Antibiotic Use

Certain groups of people may require special considerations when it comes to antibiotic use. These include:

• Pregnant and breastfeeding women
• Children and elderly individuals
• People with chronic health conditions
• Individuals with a history of allergic reactions to antibiotics

In these cases, healthcare providers must carefully weigh the benefits and risks of antibiotic treatment and may need to adjust dosages or choose alternative medications.

Are There Alternatives to Antibiotics for Treating Infections?

For some mild bacterial infections, alternatives to antibiotics may be considered. These can include:

• Allowing the body’s immune system to fight the infection naturally
• Using topical treatments for skin infections
• Employing probiotics to support gut health
• Exploring bacteriophage therapy (still in research stages)

However, it’s important to consult with a healthcare professional before deciding on any treatment approach, as some infections require prompt antibiotic treatment to prevent serious complications.

The Future of Antibiotic Development and Use

As antibiotic resistance continues to pose a significant threat to global health, researchers and pharmaceutical companies are exploring new avenues for antibiotic development and use. Some promising areas of research include:

• Development of new classes of antibiotics
• Combination therapies to enhance effectiveness and reduce resistance
• Personalized medicine approaches based on individual bacterial profiles
• Novel delivery methods to improve antibiotic efficacy

How Can We Ensure the Continued Effectiveness of Antibiotics?

Preserving the effectiveness of antibiotics requires a collective effort from healthcare providers, patients, researchers, and policymakers. This includes:

• Implementing antibiotic stewardship programs in healthcare settings
• Educating the public about appropriate antibiotic use
• Investing in research and development of new antibiotics and alternative treatments
• Reducing the use of antibiotics in agriculture
• Improving global surveillance of antibiotic resistance patterns

By working together, we can help ensure that these life-saving medications remain effective for future generations.

Antibiotics – NHS

Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent some types of bacterial infection. They work by killing bacteria or preventing them from spreading. But they do not work for everything.

Many mild bacterial infections get better on their own without using antibiotics.

Antibiotics do not work for viral infections such as colds and flu, and most coughs.

Antibiotics are no longer routinely used to treat:

• chest infections
• ear infections in children
• sore throats

When it comes to antibiotics, take your doctor’s advice on whether you need them or not. Antibiotic resistance is a big problem – taking antibiotics when you do not need them can mean they will not work for you in the future.

When antibiotics are needed

Antibiotics may be used to treat bacterial infections that:

• are unlikely to clear up without antibiotics
• could infect others
• could take too long to clear without treatment
• carry a risk of more serious complications

People at a high risk of infection may also be given antibiotics as a precaution, known as antibiotic prophylaxis.

Read more about when antibiotics are used and why antibiotics are not routinely used to treat infections.

How to take antibiotics

Take antibiotics as directed on the packet or the patient information leaflet that comes with the medicine, or as instructed by your GP or pharmacist.

Antibiotics can come as:

• tablets, capsules or a liquid that you drink – these can be used to treat most types of mild to moderate infections in the body
• creams, lotions, sprays and drops – these are often used to treat skin infections and eye or ear infections
• injections – these can be given as an injection or through a drip directly into the blood or muscle, and are used for more serious infections

Missing a dose of antibiotics

If you forget to take a dose of your antibiotics, check the patient information leaflet that came with your medicine to find out what to do. If you’re not sure, speak to a pharmacist or a GP.

In most cases, you can take the dose you missed as soon as you remember and then continue to take your course of antibiotics as normal.

But if it’s almost time for the next dose, skip the missed dose and continue your regular dosing schedule. Do not take a double dose to make up for a missed one.

Accidentally taking an extra dose

There’s an increased risk of side effects if you take 2 doses closer together than recommended.

Accidentally taking 1 extra dose of your antibiotic is unlikely to cause you any serious harm.

But it will increase your chances of getting side effects, such as pain in your stomach, diarrhoea, and feeling or being sick.

If you accidentally take more than 1 extra dose of your antibiotic, are worried or you get severe side effects, speak to your GP or call NHS 111 as soon as possible.

Side effects of antibiotics

As with any medicine, antibiotics can cause side effects. Most antibiotics do not cause problems if they’re used properly and serious side effects are rare.

The common side effects include:

• being sick
• feeling sick
• bloating and indigestion
• diarrhoea

Some people may have an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially penicillin and another type of antibiotic called cephalosporins.

In very rare cases, this can lead to a serious allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), which is a medical emergency.

Call 999 or go to A&E now if:

• you get a skin rash that may include itchy, red, swollen, blistered or peeling skin
• you’re wheezing
• you get tightness in the chest or throat
• you have trouble breathing or talking
• your mouth, face, lips, tongue or throat start swelling

You could be having a serious allergic reaction and may need immediate treatment in hospital.

Read more about the side effects of antibiotics.

Considerations and interactions

Some antibiotics are not suitable for people with certain medical problems, or women who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

Tell your healthcare professional if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding so they can prescribe the most suitable antibiotic for you.

Only ever take antibiotics prescribed for you – never “borrow” them from a friend or family member.

Some antibiotics do not mix well with other medicines, such as the contraceptive pill and alcohol.

Read the information leaflet that comes with your medicine carefully and discuss any concerns with your pharmacist or GP.

Read more about how antibiotics interact with other medicines.

Types of antibiotics

There are hundreds of different types of antibiotics, but most of them can be classified into 6 groups.

• Penicillins (such as penicillin, amoxicillin, co-amoxiclav, flucloxacillin and phenoxymethylpenicillin) – widely used to treat a variety of infections, including skin infections, chest infections and urinary tract infections
• Cephalosporins (such as cefalexin) – used to treat a wide range of infections, but some are also effective for treating more serious infections, such as sepsis and meningitis
• Aminoglycosides (such as gentamicin and tobramycin) – tend to only be used in hospital to treat very serious illnesses such as sepsis, as they can cause serious side effects, including hearing loss and kidney damage; they’re usually given by injection, but may be given as drops for some ear or eye infections
• Tetracyclines (such as tetracycline, doxycycline and lymecycline) – can be used to treat a wide range of infections, but are commonly used to treat acne and a skin condition called rosacea
• Macrolides (such as azithromycin, erythromycin and clarithromycin) – can be particularly useful for treating lung and chest infections, or as an alternative for people with a penicillin allergy, or to treat penicillin-resistant strains of bacteria
• Fluoroquinolones (such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin) – are broad-spectrum antibiotics that were once used to treat a wide range of infections, especially respiratory and urinary tract infections; these antibiotics are no longer used routinely because of the risk of serious side effects

Other antibiotics include chloramphenicol (used for eye and ear infections), fusidic acid (used for skin and eye infections), and nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim (used for urinary tract infections).

Page last reviewed: 11 November 2022
Next review due: 11 November 2025

Antibiotics – Side effects – NHS

Antibiotics can have side effects such as diarrhoea and feeling sick.

These side effects are usually mild and should pass once you finish your course of treatment.

If you get any additional side effects, contact your GP or the doctor in charge of your care for advice.

Antibiotic allergic reactions

Rarely, some people may have an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially penicillin and cephalosporins.

In most cases, the allergic reaction is mild to moderate and can take the form of:

• a raised, itchy skin rash (urticaria, or hives)
• coughing
• wheezing
• tightness of the throat, which can cause breathing difficulties

These mild to moderate allergic reactions can usually be successfully treated by taking antihistamines.

But if you’re concerned, or your symptoms do not get better with treatment, call your GP for advice. If you cannot contact your GP, call NHS 111.

In rare cases, an antibiotic can cause a severe and potentially life-threatening allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis.

Call 999 or go to A&E now if:

• you have a skin rash that may include itchy, red, swollen, blistered or peeling skin
• you’re wheezing
• you have tightness in your chest or throat
• you have trouble breathing or talking
• your mouth, face, lips, tongue or throat start swelling

You could be having a serious allergic reaction and may need immediate treatment in hospital.

Tetracyclines and sensitivity to light

Tetracyclines can make your skin sensitive to sunlight and artificial sources of light, such as sun lamps and sunbeds.

Avoid prolonged exposure to bright light while taking these medicines.

Fluoroquinolones

Severe aches and pains

In very rare cases, fluoroquinolone antibiotics can cause disabling, long-lasting or permanent side effects affecting the joints, muscles and nervous system.

Stop taking fluoroquinolone treatment straight away and see your GP if you get a serious side effect including:

• tendon, muscle or joint pain – usually in the knee, elbow or shoulder
• tingling, numbness or pins and needles

Heart problems

Fluoroquinolone antibiotics can cause serious side effects in people who are at risk of heart valve problems.

Stop taking fluoroquinolone treatment straight away and see your GP if you get a serious side effect including:

• swollen ankles, feet and legs (oedema)
• new heart palpitations (heartbeats that suddenly become more noticeable)
• sudden shortness of breath

Reporting side effects

The Yellow Card Scheme allows you to report suspected side effects from any type of medicine you’re taking.

It’s run by a medicines safety watchdog called the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA).

Page last reviewed: 11 November 2022
Next review due: 11 November 2025

What are antibiotics? – article on the website Aptechestvo, Nizhny Novgorod

Antibiotics are a group of drugs that are used in the treatment of bacterial infections. Bacteria are living microorganisms that, having penetrated into the human body, begin active life and reproduction. The effect of antibiotic therapy is the direct destruction of the pathogen, as well as slowing down the reproduction of pathogens. In connection with these antibacterial drugs are divided into 2 large groups: bactericidal – destroying the bacterium itself, as well as bacteriostatic, inhibiting their growth. In addition, antibiotics have a narrow and broad spectrum of action. Narrow-spectrum drugs destroy the infection selectively, while broad-spectrum drugs destroy most of the microorganisms, including those that benefit humans. What antibiotics to take for the treatment of various diseases should be decided by the doctor after the diagnosis. Taking such drugs at your own discretion is fraught with complications.

Fluoroquinolones

They suppress the activity of enzymes involved in the formation of bacterial DNA, as a result of which the infection dies. The drugs are available in the form of tablets, injections, ophthalmic drops. Indications for appointment:

This group of drugs:

• Ciprofloxacin;

• Ofloxacin;

• Pefloxacin;

• Norfloxacin.

Aminoglycosides

Broad-spectrum agents that kill most types of Gram-negative aerobic and facultative bacteria. The active substance disrupts the process of protein synthesis, as a result of which the pathogen is destroyed and dies.

Aminoglycosides are poorly absorbed when taken orally, so, as a rule, they are prescribed as intravenous or intramuscular injections. Members of this group:

• Amikacin;

• Gentamicin;

• Kanamycin;

• Neomycin;

• Plazomycin;

• Streptomycin.

As a rule, these drugs are used in combination with other antibiotics to treat such infectious diseases:

Tetracyclines

Bacteriostatic antibiotics that retard the growth of pathogenic microorganisms, but do not completely destroy them. As a result, the reproduction of the infection stops, and it gradually dies.

Tetracyclines have a wide spectrum of activity, with pronounced activity against aerobic gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Tetracyclines are not prescribed for children under 8 years of age, since long-term use causes a number of serious complications.

The drugs of this group can be prescribed in tablet forms and in the form of injections. For the treatment of ophthalmic infections, ointments are produced, the active substance of which is tetracycline.

Medicines:

• doxycycline;

• minocycline;

• Tetracycline;

• Oxytetracycline.

Diseases for which tetracyclines are prescribed:

Macrolides

They suppress vital activity and prevent the reproduction of anaerobic and aerobic gram-positive bacteria. Preparations of this group are used in the treatment of bronchopulmonary infections, tonsillitis, otitis, scarlet fever, intestinal infections. Medicines that are included in this group:

• Erythromycin;

• Azithromycin;

• Clarithromycin;

• Spiramycin.

Penicilli

A group of antibiotics produced by the fungus Penicillium. Penicilli are active against most Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. This group of drugs:

• Amoxicillin;

• Augumetin;

• Amoxiclav;

• Flemoxin Slutab.

Cephalosporins

These are bactericidal beta-beta-lactam antibiotics that interfere with cell protein synthesis. There are 5 generations of cephalosporins. The active substance penetrates well into most body fluids, having a pronounced bactericidal effect. Cephalosporins are used for uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by staphylococcal and streptococcal bacteria. This group of drugs:

• Ceftriaxone;

• Cefodox;

• Cefix;

• Tsepefim.

Bacteria are organisms that do not live long, but in order to restore their population, they multiply rapidly, and, accordingly, quickly mutate, adapting to new living conditions. Microorganisms that survive after taking antibiotics become resistant to them. Their offspring also become immune to a particular drug.

Antibiotic resistance is a common problem of modern man, which causes serious complications. A person who has tried many antibiotics, that is, self-medicated, is at risk for patients with antibiotic resistance. Very often they die before a specialist can pick up a drug that works against a specific pathogen. Therefore, it is important to follow the recommendations of the doctor and take antibacterial agents strictly according to an individual scheme.

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