What are the main classes of antibiotics. How do antibiotics work against bacterial infections. Which antibiotics are used for common bacterial diseases. What are the differences in antibiotic coverage and mechanisms of action.

Understanding Antibiotic Classifications and Their Mechanisms

Antibiotics are crucial medications used to combat bacterial infections. They play a vital role in treating a wide range of conditions, from urinary tract infections to pneumonia. To better understand these powerful drugs, it’s essential to explore their various classes, mechanisms of action, and specific uses.

The 10 Main Antibiotic Classes

There are 10 primary antibiotic classes, each with unique characteristics and applications:

• Aminoglycosides
• Cephalosporins
• Tetracyclines
• Penicillins
• Sulfonamides
• Fluoroquinolones
• Macrolides
• Carbapenems
• Lincosamides
• Glycopeptides

To help remember these classes, consider the mnemonic: “Antibiotics Can Terminate Protein Synthesis For Microbial Cells Like Germs.” This not only aids in recalling the classes but also hints at a common mechanism of action for many antibiotics – the inhibition of protein synthesis.

Aminoglycosides: Potent Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics

Aminoglycosides are powerful antibiotics known for their effectiveness against aerobic gram-negative bacteria. How do they work? Aminoglycosides bind to the 30s ribosomal subunit of bacteria, disrupting protein synthesis. This mechanism makes them particularly useful for treating severe infections.

Key Features of Aminoglycosides

• Drug names often end in “-mycin” or “-micin” (e.g., streptomycin, gentamicin)
• Primarily effective against aerobic gram-negative bacteria
• Can act synergistically with other antibiotics against certain gram-positive organisms
• Not effective against anaerobic bacteria

When might a healthcare provider prescribe aminoglycosides? These antibiotics are often reserved for serious infections such as bacteremia, intra-abdominal infections, and life-threatening conditions that could progress to shock if left untreated.

Cephalosporins: Versatile Cell Wall Inhibitors

Cephalosporins are a diverse class of antibiotics that target both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. How do they combat bacterial infections? Cephalosporins work by inhibiting cell wall synthesis, specifically by interfering with the formation of peptidoglycan, a crucial component of bacterial cell walls.

Understanding Cephalosporin Characteristics

• Drug names typically begin with “cef-” or “ceph-” (e.g., ceftriaxone, cefepime)
• Effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
• Classified into generations based on their spectrum of activity
• Target penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) involved in cell wall synthesis

Why are cephalosporins so widely used? Their broad spectrum of activity and relatively low toxicity make them suitable for treating a variety of infections, from simple skin infections to more severe conditions like meningitis or hospital-acquired pneumonia.

Tetracyclines: Broad-Spectrum Protein Synthesis Inhibitors

Tetracyclines are another important class of antibiotics known for their broad-spectrum activity. How do tetracyclines work? They inhibit protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit, preventing the attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex.

Key Aspects of Tetracyclines

• Drug names often end in “-cycline” (e.g., doxycycline, minocycline)
• Effective against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
• Also used to treat certain parasitic infections
• Can be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the concentration and susceptibility of the organism

In what situations are tetracyclines commonly prescribed? They are often used to treat acne, respiratory tract infections, Lyme disease, and certain sexually transmitted infections. Their broad spectrum of activity makes them versatile antibiotics in clinical practice.

Penicillins: The First Antibiotics

Penicillins hold a special place in medical history as the first discovered antibiotics. How do penicillins fight bacterial infections? Like cephalosporins, they inhibit cell wall synthesis by interfering with the cross-linking of peptidoglycan chains.

Understanding Penicillin Characteristics

• Drug names often include “penicillin” or end in “-cillin” (e.g., amoxicillin, ampicillin)
• Primarily effective against gram-positive bacteria, with some activity against gram-negatives
• Different subclasses have varying spectrums of activity
• Some are combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to overcome bacterial resistance

Why are penicillins still widely used despite being one of the oldest antibiotic classes? Their effectiveness against many common bacterial infections, relatively low toxicity, and affordability make them a first-line choice for many conditions, including strep throat, skin infections, and certain respiratory tract infections.

Sulfonamides: Folic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors

Sulfonamides, also known as sulfa drugs, were among the first synthetic antibiotics developed. How do sulfonamides work? They inhibit bacterial growth by interfering with folic acid synthesis, a process crucial for bacterial DNA replication and cell division.

Key Features of Sulfonamides

• Drug names often contain “sulfa” (e.g., sulfamethoxazole)
• Effective against a range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
• Often combined with trimethoprim for synergistic effect (e.g., co-trimoxazole)
• Can also have anti-inflammatory and diuretic properties

When are sulfonamides typically prescribed? They are commonly used to treat urinary tract infections, certain types of pneumonia, and toxoplasmosis. The combination of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is particularly useful for treating Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in immunocompromised patients.

Fluoroquinolones: DNA Gyrase Inhibitors

Fluoroquinolones are a class of synthetic broad-spectrum antibiotics. How do fluoroquinolones combat bacterial infections? They inhibit DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, enzymes essential for bacterial DNA replication and transcription.

Understanding Fluoroquinolone Characteristics

• Drug names typically end in “-oxacin” (e.g., ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin)
• Effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
• Particularly useful for treating respiratory and urinary tract infections
• Some have activity against atypical pathogens like Mycoplasma and Chlamydia

Why are fluoroquinolones considered broad-spectrum antibiotics? Their ability to penetrate various tissues and their effectiveness against a wide range of bacteria make them versatile for treating diverse infections. However, due to potential side effects, they are often reserved for situations where other antibiotics may be less effective or inappropriate.

Macrolides: Protein Synthesis Inhibitors with Unique Structure

Macrolides are a class of antibiotics characterized by their large lactone ring structure. How do macrolides work against bacteria? They bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis by blocking the translocation of peptidyl tRNA.

Key Aspects of Macrolides

• Drug names often end in “-mycin” or “-olide” (e.g., erythromycin, azithromycin)
• Primarily effective against gram-positive bacteria and atypical pathogens
• Can accumulate in high concentrations within certain cells, enhancing their effectiveness
• Some have anti-inflammatory properties in addition to their antimicrobial effects

In what situations are macrolides commonly prescribed? They are often used to treat respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia and bronchitis. Macrolides are also effective against certain sexually transmitted infections and skin infections. Their ability to concentrate in tissues makes them particularly useful for treating intracellular pathogens.

Carbapenems: Broad-Spectrum Beta-Lactams

Carbapenems are considered a last line of defense against many resistant bacteria. How do carbapenems fight bacterial infections? Like other beta-lactam antibiotics, they inhibit cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs).

Understanding Carbapenem Characteristics

• Drug names typically end in “-penem” (e.g., meropenem, imipenem)
• Offer the broadest spectrum of activity among beta-lactam antibiotics
• Effective against many gram-positive, gram-negative, and anaerobic bacteria
• Resistant to many beta-lactamases that inactivate other beta-lactam antibiotics

Why are carbapenems often reserved for serious infections? Their broad spectrum of activity and resistance to many beta-lactamases make them valuable for treating multidrug-resistant infections. However, to prevent further resistance development, they are typically used only when other antibiotics are ineffective or inappropriate.

Lincosamides: Specialized Protein Synthesis Inhibitors

Lincosamides are a small but important class of antibiotics. How do lincosamides work against bacteria? They bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis in a manner similar to macrolides.

Key Features of Lincosamides

• The main drug in this class is clindamycin
• Effective against many gram-positive bacteria and anaerobes
• Can accumulate in high concentrations in bone tissue
• Often used as an alternative for patients allergic to penicillin

When might a healthcare provider prescribe lincosamides? They are commonly used to treat skin and soft tissue infections, dental infections, and bone and joint infections. Clindamycin is also effective against some protozoal infections, making it useful in certain tropical diseases.

Glycopeptides: Cell Wall Inhibitors for Resistant Infections

Glycopeptides are a class of antibiotics crucial for treating infections caused by resistant gram-positive bacteria. How do glycopeptides combat bacterial infections? They inhibit cell wall synthesis by binding to the D-alanyl-D-alanine terminus of the nascent peptidoglycan chain.

Understanding Glycopeptide Characteristics

• The most well-known glycopeptide is vancomycin
• Primarily effective against gram-positive bacteria, including many resistant strains
• Often used as a last-resort treatment for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
• Require careful monitoring due to potential toxicity

Why are glycopeptides considered important in modern antibiotic therapy? Their effectiveness against resistant gram-positive bacteria, particularly MRSA, makes them invaluable in treating serious infections that don’t respond to other antibiotics. However, their use is typically restricted to prevent the development of further resistance.

Understanding the various classes of antibiotics, their mechanisms of action, and specific uses is crucial for healthcare providers and patients alike. This knowledge aids in selecting the most appropriate treatment for bacterial infections while considering factors such as antibiotic resistance, patient allergies, and potential side effects. As antibiotic resistance continues to be a global health concern, responsible use of these medications becomes increasingly important to preserve their effectiveness for future generations.

Drug Name List, Coverage, Mechanism of Action, Mnemonic, Examples Made Easy — EZmed

Pharmacology

Jan 9

Written By EZmed

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Antibiotic Chart

By definition, antibiotics are medications used to fight bacterial infections.

Common uses include urinary tract infections (UTIs), strep throat (pharyngitis), pneumonia, ear infections (otitis media), some sinus infections (sinusitis), and much more.

There are many different classes of antibiotics including penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, macrolides, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, carbapenems, lincosamides, and glycopeptides.

In this post, we will use the below chart and mnemonic to discuss the different antibiotic classes along with their gram coverage, mechanism of action (how they work), drug names, and example uses.

We will continue to make antibiotic pharmacology easy with 3 simple tricks to help you remember the drug names, gram coverage, and mechanism of action of each class!

Let’s get started!

Don’t Miss Out!

For a simple trick to remember the medications names in each antibiotic class, click the EZmed link below!

Antibiotic Classes and Drug Names: The Pharmacology Trick

Image: Use the above mnemonic and chart to remember the main antibiotic classes along with their drug names, coverage, mechanism of action, and uses.

Antibiotic Class Mnemonic

There are 10 main classes of antibiotics that we will discuss in this post.

They include aminoglycosides, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, penicillins, sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, carbapenems, lincosamides, and glycopeptides.

You can use the following EZmed mnemonic to remember these main classes:

“Antibiotics Can Terminate Protein Synthesis For Microbial Cells Like Germs”.

This mnemonic is useful because it not only helps you remember the main antibiotic classes, but it also reminds you that inhibition of protein synthesis is the mechanism of action for many antibiotics (more on this later).

Image: Use the above mnemonic to remember the 10 main antibiotic classes.

“Antibiotics Can Terminate Protein Synthesis For Microbial Cells Like Germs”

Antibiotics = Aminoglycosides

Can = Cephalosporins

Terminate = Tetracyclines

Protein = Penicillins

Synthesis = Sulfonamides

For = Fluoroquinolones

Microbial = Macrolides

Cells = Carbapenems

Like = Lincosamides

Germs = Glycopeptides

Antibiotic Classes

We’re now going to walk through the mnemonic and discuss the drug names, coverage, mechanism of action, and example indications for each class.

You can use the table below as a reference!

Image: From left to right column: Mnemonic, Antibiotic Class, Example Drug Names, Gram Coverage, Mechanism of Action, Example Uses

Aminoglycosides

Drug Names: Examples of aminoglycosides include streptomycin and gentamicin. These drug names typically end in “mycin/micin”.

Gram Coverage: Aminoglycosides primarily cover aerobic gram-negative bacteria and do not cover anaerobes. While they are particularly active against gram-negatives, they can act synergistically against certain gram-positive organisms.

Mechanism of Action: Aminoglycosides inhibit protein synthesis.

Ribosomes function to synthesize proteins in cells, and bacterial ribosomes are made up of a 30s and 50s subunit.

Aminoglycosides bind to the 30s ribosomal subunit of bacteria thereby disrupting protein synthesis (human ribosomes have a 40s and 60s subunit and are not affected by the antibiotic as a result).

Example Indications: Aminoglycosides are highly potent, broad-spectrum antibiotics and can be used for bacteremia, intra-abdominal infections, and other life-threatening infections that may progress to shock if untreated.

Cephalosporins

Drug Names: Examples of cephalosporins include ceftriaxone and cefepime. These drug names typically begin with “cef/ceph”.

Gram Coverage: Cephalosporins cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Cephalosporins inhibit cell wall synthesis.

Peptidoglycan is a major component of bacterial cell walls and is necessary to maintain the cell wall integrity.

Peptidoglycan synthesis is facilitated by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs).

Cephalosporins (along with penicillins and carbapenems) contain a beta-lactam ring in their structure and are classified as beta-lactam antibiotics as a result.

Beta-lactam antibiotics bind to, and inhibit, PBPs thereby preventing peptidoglycan synthesis and cross-linking. As a result, the bacterial cell wall is disrupted.

Example Indications: Cephalosporins can be used for skin, urinary, and respiratory infections among others.

There are 5 generations of cephalosporin medications based on their spectrum of coverage.

For a simple trick to remember which medications are in each generation, check out the following EZmed post! “Cephalosporin Generations Made Easy”

For the simple “arrow trick” to remember the coverage of each cephalosporin generation check out the following EZmed post! “Cephalosporin Coverage Made Easy”

Tetracyclines

Drug Names: Examples of tetracyclines include tetracycline and doxycycline. These drug names usually end in “cycline”.

Gram Coverage: Tetracyclines cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Tetracyclines are similar to aminoglycosides in that they inhibit protein synthesis, specifically by binding to the 30s subunit of the bacterial ribosome.

Example Indications: Tetracyclines can be used for Lyme disease, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and some sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among others.

Penicillins

Drug Names: Examples of penicillins include ampicillin and amoxicillin. These drug names typically end in “cillin”.

Gram Coverage: Penicillins cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, especially the later generation penicillins.

Mechanism of Action: Penicillins are beta-lactam antibiotics, and therefore they inhibit cell wall synthesis similar to cephalosporins.

Example Indications: Penicillins can be used for various ear, nose, throat (ENT), skin, and urinary infections among others.

Later generations can also be used for intra-abdominal infections such as gallbladder/biliary infections among others.

Sulfonamides

Drug Names: Examples of sulfonamides include sulfasalazine (can be used as an anti-inflammatory) and sulfamethoxazole. These drug names typically begin with “sulfa”.

Gram Coverage: Sulfonamides cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Sulfonamides inhibit folate synthesis.

Bacteria have the unique ability to generate their own folate, whereas humans must obtain folate from their diet.

Therefore, sulfonamides act on this unique bacterial function by inhibiting folate synthesis.

Example Indications: Sulfonamides can be used for burns, eye infections, and urinary tract infections (UTIs) among others.

Fluoroquinolones

Drug Names: Examples of fluoroquinolones include ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin. These drug names typically end in “floxacin”.

Gram Coverage: Fluoroquinolones cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Fluoroquinolones inhibit DNA synthesis and replication.

They inhibit enzymes such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase, and DNA is unable to unwind and/or replicate as a result.

Example Indications: Fluoroquinolones can be used for respiratory and urinary infections among others.

Macrolides

Drug Names: Examples of macrolides include azithromycin and erythromycin. These drug names typically end in “thromycin”.

Gram Coverage: Macrolides cover primarily gram-positive bacteria, with some gram-negative coverage.

Mechanism of Action: Macrolides inhibit protein synthesis.

However, rather than binding to the 30s subunit of bacterial ribosomes (like we saw with aminoglycosides and tetracyclines), macrolides bind to the 50s subunit.

Example Indications: Macrolides can be used for pneumonia, sinusitis, ENT infections, and STIs among others.

Carbapenems

Drug Names: Examples of carbapenems include meropenem and ertapenem. These drug names typically end in “penem”.

Gram Coverage: Carbapenems cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Carbapenems inhibit cell wall synthesis similar to cephalosporins and penicillins as they are also beta-lactam antibiotics.

Example Indications: Carbapenems are broad-spectrum antibiotics and can be used for urinary and abdominal infections among others.

Appendicitis, especially if complicated (perforated, abscess, etc), is one example in which carbapenems could be used.

Lincosamides

Drug Names: Examples of lincosamides include clindamycin, lincomycin, and pirlimycin. Some of these drug names, but not all, end in “mycin”.

Gram Coverage: Lincosamides primarily cover gram-positive bacteria as they are unable to pass through the outer membrane of gram-negative organisms.

Mechanism of Action: Lincosamides inhibit protein synthesis, specifically by targeting the 50s subunit of the bacterial ribosome as we saw with macrolides.

Example Indications: Lincosamides can be used for skin, bone, and lung infections among others.

Glycopeptides

Drug Names: Vancomycin is an example of a glycopeptide. Most of these drug names end in “in” with some ending in “mycin”.

Gram Coverage: Glycopeptides primarily cover gram-positive bacteria as they are large and cannot pass through the porin channels found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Glycopeptides inhibit cell wall synthesis.

Example Indications: Glycopeptides can be used for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), skin infections, and endocarditis among others.

Drug Name Trick

Now that we have discussed the main antibiotic classes, let’s learn some tricks to remember the information!

The first trick will help you remember the drug names within each antibiotic class as most of the medications share similar prefixes and/or suffixes.

**While this trick applies to most drug names within each class there may be a few exceptions.

Aminoglycosides = end in “mycin”

Cephalosporins = begin with “cef/ceph”

Tetracyclines = end in “cycline”

Penicillins = end in “cillin”

Sulfonamides = begin with “sulfa”

Fluoroquinolones = end in “floxacin”

Macrolides = end in “thromycin”

Carbapenems = end in “penem”

Lincosamides = end in “mycin”

Glycopeptides = end in “in/mycin”

Aminoglycosides, lincosamides, and glycopeptides can all end in “mycin” so be careful with those.

Image: Use the above trick to remember the drug names in each antibiotic class.

Gram Coverage Trick

The next trick is to help you remember the gram coverage for each antibiotic class.

Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Coverage

All but 4 of the antibiotic classes cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Therefore, if you remember those 4 classes, then you will know the others will cover both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.

Below are some tricks to remember what those classes are.

Specific Coverage Classes

The 4 classes that have specific gram coverage include glycopeptides, lincosamides, aminoglycosides, and macrolides.

There are a couples ways to remember these 4 classes.

First, you can use the acronym “GLAM” to remember Glycopeptides, Lincosamides, Aminoglycosides, and Macrolides.

Second, these 4 antibiotic classes end in “ide”, so you can use the class suffix to remember they have specific gram coverage.

***If you use this second method be careful with sulfonamides, as this class name also has the suffix “ides”, but they cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

If this confuses you, then simply use the acronym GLAM instead.

Gram-Negative Coverage Only

Aminoglycosides primarily cover gram-negative bacteria (with some minor exceptions against gram-positives, especially when used synergistically).

The word amiNOglycoside has the word “NO” in it. No is a negative response which will help you remember gram-negative.

Gram-Positive Coverage Only

The other 3 classes (glycopeptides, lincosamides, and macrolides) primarily cover gram-positive bacteria only (with macrolides having minor gram-negative coverage as well).

Remember lincosamides and glycopeptides have difficulty passing through the outer membrane of gram-negative organisms.

“GLAM” = Special Classes

AmiNOglycosides = Gram (-) = “NO”

Cephalosporins = Gram (+)/(-)

Tetracyclines = Gram (+)/(-)

Penicillins = Gram (+)/(-)

Sulfonamides = Gram (+)/(-)

Fluoroquinolones = Gram (+)/(-)

Macrolides = Gram (+)

Carbapenems = Gram (+)/(-)

Lincosamides = Gram (+)

Glycopeptides = Gram (+)

Image: You can use the acronym “GLAM” to remember Glycopeptides, Lincosamides, Aminoglycosides, and Macrolides have specific gram coverage (with minor exceptions discussed above).

Mechanism of Action Trick

Lastly, there is a trick to remember the mechanism of action of each class.

There are 4 main mechanisms of action:

1. Inhibition of folate synthesis

2. Inhibition of DNA replication/synthesis

3. Inhibition of protein synthesis

4. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis

Inhibit Folate Synthesis

Sulfonamides are the main class to inhibit folate synthesis.

This can be remembered because both sulFOnamide and FOlate contain “FO”.

Inhibit DNA Replication

Fluoroquinolones are the main class to inhibit DNA replication/synthesis.

Think of quintuplets as having identical copies of DNA (DNA replication).

Use the “QUIN” in fluoroQUINolones and QUINtuplets to help you remember DNA replication inhibition.

Inhibit Protein Synthesis

Macrolides, aminoglycosides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines all inhibit protein synthesis.

Use the acronym “MALT” and think of malt powder that is sometimes found in “protein” shakes.

This will help you remember Macrolides, Aminoglycosides, Lincosamides, and Tetracyclines (MALT) inhibit protein synthesis.

Inhibition Cell Wall Synthesis

Lastly, through process of elimination the final 4 antibiotic classes inhibit cell wall synthesis: cephalosporins, penicillins, carbapenems, and glycopeptides.

Aminoglycosides = Inhibit protein synthesis “MALT”

Cephalosporins = Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Tetracyclines = Inhibit protein synthesis “MALT”

Penicillins = Inhibit cell wall synthesis

SulFOnamides = Inhibit FOlate synthesis = “FO”

FluoroQUINolones = Inhibit DNA replication = QUINtuplets

Macrolides = Inhibit protein synthesis “MALT”

Carbapenems = Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Lincosamides = Inhibit protein synthesis “MALT”

Glycopeptides = Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Image: You can use the above tricks to remember the mechanism of action for each antibiotic class.

Conclusion

Hopefully this was a good overview of the main antibiotic classes, as well as useful mnemonics and tricks to remember the drug names, gram coverage, and mechanism of action of each class!

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Common Antibiotics for Dogs and Cats

Antibiotics Commonly Prescribed for Pets

Like humans, dogs and cats develop bacterial infections that require a treatment program involving antibiotics. Antibacterial medications are essential for treating these infections because they destroy the infected organism while leaving your pet’s healthy cells intact.

Some antibiotics work by preventing bacteria from building cell walls, thereby stopping their ability to reproduce, while others work by starving the bacteria to prevent the infected organism from being able to turn glucose into energy. Here are the most-common antibiotics used in veterinary medicine to treat infections in dogs and cats and their uses.

Top Antibiotics for Dogs

The five most-common antibiotics prescribed for dogs include:

Amoxicillin/Clavulanate—This antibiotic combo is related to Penicillin and is used to treat a broad spectrum of bacterial infections, including skin infections, infections in the respiratory system, gastrointestinal infections, and genitourinary infections.

Gentamicin—Gentamicin is prescribed to treat dogs with eye infections, ear infections, and pneumonia. This medicine also is prescribed with an anti-inflammatory drug to help reduce redness and swelling.

Chloramphenicol—Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic that has a level of pH that can be safe enough for it to completely pass through your dog’s body. This makes it a top choice for treating a dog with bacterial infections in the organs.

Sulfamethoxole—Sulfamethoxole is used to treat urinary-tract infections in dogs. This antibiotic can be hard on a dog’s gastrointestinal system and it often causes side effects like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. While your dog is taking sulfamethoxole, make sure she drinks plenty of water to stay hydrated.

Tetracycline—Tetracycline can treat a variety of bacterial infections because it prevents proteins from synthesizing. Tetracycline is used whenever another antibiotic has proven ineffective because it has the ability to break through the protection barriers the bacteria use to protect themselves.

Top 5 Antibiotics for Cats

The five most-common antibiotics prescribed for cats include:

Amoxicillin—Amoxicillin is prescribed by veterinarians to treat bacterial infections in cats. It is highly effective against everything from skin infections to gastrointestinal infections.

Cephalexin—Cephalexin is another broad-range antibiotic that is popular for use in cats because it typically produces minimal side-effects. It is used to treat urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue bacterial infections, infections in the bones, and respiratory tract infections.

Clindamycin—This antibiotic is used to treat toxoplasmosis, but it’s also a top pick for treating bacterial infections in cat’s skin, mouth, or bones. It is used to treat kittens because it is very well tolerated and relatively fast-acting.

Enrofloxacin—Enrofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic. It is prescribed to treat infections of the urinary tract, skin, prostate, lungs, gastrointestinal system, and liver.

Metronidazole—Metronidazole is a go-to antibiotic for treating cats with periodontal disease, though it also is effective against gastrointestinal infections.

Any time your dog or cat has an infection, take her to your veterinarian for an examination. Infections are not something you can and treat on your own using over-the-counter antibiotics or antibiotics bought from a non-certified compounding pharmacy online. Infections must be treated with exact doses and treatment lengths.

About the Author

Dr. Evan Ware is a veterinary practitioner in Phoenix, Arizona. He received both his undergraduate degree in microbiology and his Doctorate of Veterinary Medicine from The Ohio State University.

Dr. Ware is currently the Medical Director of University Animal Hospital (VCA) and is also the owner of two other hospitals, including Laveen Veterinary Center and Phoenix Veterinary Center. His areas of expertise include orthopedic medicine and surgery, veterinary oncology and chemotherapy, and general and advanced soft-tissue surgery.

Site GBUZ District hospital with. Argayash

Antibiotics: harm and benefit.

Antibiotics were invented over 70 years ago to save lives and fight deadly diseases, but today they have become the subject of much controversy and discussion. Opinions are divided: some believe that antibacterial drugs are modern means that help to successfully resist infectious diseases, others are sure that antibiotics themselves cause serious disorders in the human body, so taking them is a significant danger. Let’s see if antibiotics are harmful or beneficial.

Antibiotic (antibiotic). Translated from Latin “Against Life”.

In fact, antibiotics were created to inhibit the reproduction and growth of protozoa, which are precisely pathogenic bacteria. A high concentration of substances that affect cells cannot but affect the body, but when it comes to treating a dangerous disease, it is better to soberly assess the risk-benefit ratio of antibiotics.

Strictly observing the rules for taking antibiotics, you can quickly cope with the disease, while the damage to health in general will be minimal. Conversely, uncontrolled use of drugs is dangerous, so it is especially important to have an idea about the benefits and harms of antibacterial substances.

1. 1. Antibiotics: harm to the body.

Probably few of us think that a person lives in the world of bacteria. They live both inside and outside of us. Antibiotics really deal a strong blow to pathogenic bacteria, but at the same time they cause irreparable harm to the whole organism.

Bacteria are an integral part of all life.

The first antibiotics were of natural origin, they were obtained from mold fungi – penicillin, biomycin. And they had a narrow spectrum of action, did not affect the beneficial microflora. They did not cause damage to the body, since its microflora is already adapted to the substances they contain – for example, these are moldy foods.

Antibiotics of the new generation are being developed synthetically, they have the widest spectrum of action, but they kill almost all bacteria – there is not selective (selective), but total elimination of almost all bacteria in the body (including beneficial microflora). But at the same time, the pathogenic microflora very quickly adapts to such antibiotics, literally in 2-3 months new strains appear that are resistant to these antibiotics.

The useful microflora recovers much more slowly, and it turns out that we only cause damage to our body by killing the intestinal microflora, which is an integral part of our immunity. The macroorganism lives in symbiosis with this microflora and practically cannot exist without it.

Thus, taking antibiotics disrupts the natural microflora, resulting in a sharp drop in immunity. And then, there is an easy opportunity for the penetration of many pathogens into the body – this is how a person falls ill with severe diseases. Therefore, after treatment with synthetic antibiotics, the body becomes practically unprotected from various dangerous pathogens.

It is very difficult for a weakened organism to cope with pathogenic flora.

1. 2. Antibiotic side effects.

There are definitely side effects, especially if you take artificial drugs for a long time, which leads to complications, and even death.

Antibiotics are designed to aggressively interfere with the vital activity of microorganisms. The aiming accuracy of the effect of drugs on pathogenic bacteria is the goal of numerous research and development, which has not yet been achieved. Therefore, taking antimicrobial agents has a number of side effects and can adversely affect health and well-being. 9 are considered especially serious.0003 such consequences :

• Malformations of the fetus during pregnancy , therefore taking antibiotics in the 1st and 2nd trimesters of pregnancy is strictly prohibited and is possible only in extreme cases.

• Weakened immunity and health problems in infants therefore antibiotics are not prescribed during breastfeeding.
• Irritation of the mucous membranes of the stomach, exacerbation of ulcerative and pre-ulcerative conditions, imbalance of microflora in the intestine.
• Liver, kidney and gallbladder disorders in case of individual intolerance to antibacterial components.
• Severe allergic reactions accompanied by severe itching, rashes, and in rare cases swelling.
• Disorders of the vestibular apparatus, disorders of the nervous system, accompanied by auditory and visual hallucinations.

Taking antibiotics during pregnancy can harm the baby.

In some cases, individual reactions can be observed from the nervous and circulatory systems, liver, kidneys and gastrointestinal tract.

Synthetic hormonal preparations are especially dangerous . They destroy the endocrine system so much that after taking them it will have to be restored by natural means for a long time. They can give complications to the most important organs and systems of the body, causing serious harm to your health.

Under the influence of antibiotics, the body loses the ability to independently resist various infections. And besides, their widespread use of has led to the emergence of strains of bacteria that are resistant to these drugs. After all, now doctors prescribe such drugs at the peak of viral diseases.

Even some diapers are treated with antibiotics.

1. 3. Use of antibiotics.

Despite the sharp criticism of antibiotics, they are nevertheless considered one of the most significant discoveries in the history of mankind. If before their invention people died from the common cold, today antibacterial drugs are able to cope with serious diseases that were previously considered incurable.

Pneumonia, tuberculosis, gastrointestinal infections, sexually transmitted diseases, blood poisoning and postoperative complications – Correctly and timely prescribed antimicrobial agents will help to cope with serious conditions, minimizing the risk of complications if possible.

In addition, modern antibiotics belonging to the synthetic group are based on the latest developments: their administration is relatively safe, and the concentration of active antibacterial components in a single dose of the drug is calculated with the greatest possible accuracy. Some antimicrobials may even allow alcohol to be taken, but risking is not recommended. Otherwise, the benefits of antibiotics can turn into harm.

Although antimicrobials can save you from fatal diseases, they should not be overused.

1. 4. Indications for the use of antibiotics.

Taking antibacterial drugs is advisable for the following diseases:

• Infectious diseases of the nasopharynx: sinusitis, sinusitis, diphtheria, etc.

• Diseases of the skin and mucous membranes: furunculosis, severe acne, folliculitis.
• Diseases of the respiratory system: pneumonia, bronchotracheitis.
• Sexual infections caused by various pathogens.
• Disease of the kidneys and urinary tract.
• Enteritis and severe poisoning.

Contrary to popular belief, antibiotics are not effective against influenza and SARS because they fight bacteria, not viruses. They are prescribed for the treatment of a bacterial infection that has joined a viral disease, but only a doctor should do this.

1. 5. Rules for taking antibiotics.

If the attending physician considers the prescription of antibiotics justified and expedient, the most important thing is to make sure that their use brings maximum benefit and minimum harm. To do this, regardless of the type of antibacterial drugs prescribed, it is advisable to follow the following recommendations:

• 0003 is produced in low and high doses, therefore, when buying a medicine, you should be careful and purchase the drug in doses strictly prescribed by your doctor.
• Before using , be sure to read the instructions : in the presence of diseases listed in the list of contraindications, you should consult a doctor for advice.
• Do not take on an empty stomach, so as not to increase mucosal irritation.
• Be sure to drink antibiotics with water.
• Eliminate alcohol , absorbent and blood-thinning drugs .
• Even if the condition improved immediately, it is necessary to complete the course of taking : bacteria that are not completely suppressed form resistance to the antibiotic, and further treatment will be ineffective.
• For maintenance of normal intestinal microflora it is recommended to use probiotics, preparations with lactobacilli, immunomodulators and vitamin complexes.

Antibiotic treatment is likely to be effective if taken properly and all prescriptions are followed. In no case should you prescribe antibacterial drugs for yourself, so as not to harm yourself even more.

1. 6. Counterfeit antibiotics.

The business of counterfeit medicines is very common today, especially expensive and widely advertised drugs. Therefore, carefully check the availability of proper certificates, so as not to buy a fake and not cause serious harm to your health.

1. 7. What causes the uncontrolled use of antibiotics.

Antibiotics are becoming ineffective – due to their massive use, viruses develop faster and faster.

Many medical professionals are increasingly talking about the dangers of mass use of antibiotics. Since due to the rapid pace of development of viruses, there is a threat of the emergence of resistant flora that cannot be resisted by new antibiotic agents.

Most often antibiotics are prescribed by doctors unreasonably . Antibiotics must be used strictly for their intended purpose and only for such diseases where they are really necessary.

1. 8. Antibiotics in food.

Synthetic antibiotics have become very difficult to avoid and even if you do not use them during outbreaks of viral diseases – it is unlikely that you will be able to do this in gastronomy. At present, they are used for heat treatment, sterilization, filtration in many food products. This is and milk and meat, eggs, chicken, cheese, shrimp, and even honey.

In the meat industry antibiotics are also widely used today to keep animals from getting sick. The so-called “growth hormones” – to increase the rate of raising livestock or poultry. Therefore, it will also not be superfluous to be interested in what kind of meat products you consume. It is advisable to purchase meat from farms that do not use synthetic hormonal preparations when raising animals.

Antibiotics are commonly used in food.

1. 9. Types of antibiotics.

Today, doctors distinguish the following groups of antibacterial drugs:

• Penicillins.

Mold colonies with the same name serve as material for the production of preparations. Able to destroy the cell walls of bacteria and suppress their vital activity. Antibiotics of this group penetrate deep into the cells of the body and can effectively attack hidden pathogens. Significant disadvantages of the drug are the rapid excretion from the body and the ability of microbes to form resistance to penicillins.

• Cephalosporins.

Broad spectrum preparations similar in structure to penicillins. There are three generations of cephalosporins: 1st generation is used to treat diseases of the genitourinary system and upper respiratory tract; 2nd generation – to suppress gastrointestinal infections; 3rd generation – to suppress especially severe infections . The disadvantages of the drug include the ability to cause a strong allergic reaction.

• Macrolides.

Differ in complex cyclic structure. They are able to destroy the structures of bacteria responsible for the synthesis of proteins, as a result of which the development and reproduction of microorganisms stops. Relatively safe and acceptable for long-term treatment, although over time, microbes can develop resistance (resistance) to the antibiotic.

• Tetracyclines.

In their action, they are similar to macrolides, but due to their low selectivity, they can negatively affect the cells of the human body. Effective in the treatment of a number of severe infections, but have many side effects, so they are most often used externally in the form of creams and ointments.

• Aminoglycosides.

They have a wide spectrum of action, but are most often used to suppress serious infectious processes associated with blood poisoning, infection of wounds and burns. Today they are used less and less due to high toxicity.

• Antifungal antibiotics.

They have an active effect on fungi, destroying the cell membrane and leading to their death. Quickly cause the resistance of microorganisms, so they are gradually being replaced by highly effective synthetic drugs.

The same antibiotic may be sold under different brand names, so before buying all of your doctor’s prescriptions, be sure to check if they are to be taken in the same course or are given as substitution options.

1. 10. Natural antibiotics.

There are natural, natural antibiotics in nature. There are many plants that contain antibiotic substances:

Many natural remedies that have antimicrobial action without side effects.

• St. John’s wort, dill and dill seeds, (chaparral) – natural antibiotics . For example, the well-known St. John’s wort contains the substance hypericin, which has a very strong antimicrobial effect, and without side effects on the body, on the microflora. It can be many times superior to synthetic antimicrobial drugs.
• Kerosene perfectly suppresses viruses, bacteria, parasites.
• Vodka-infused green walnut, cloves and wormwood – combined are potent antibiotic is used in folk medicine as a natural antibiotic.
• Also silver is a natural disinfectant. It destroys pathogenic organisms, including viruses, bacteria, parasites. Today there are silver generators. Silver plating – water disinfection with silver (water treatment with silver ions, oligodynamia) is becoming more and more popular among the population.

Water silvering device.

Widely used aspirin, which has a diluting effect, in addition to its positive properties, causes many side effects, causes a number of complications, as well as hidden bleeding. It can be replaced with lemon juice and other natural remedies.

Unique licensing agreement expands access to antibiotics in low- and middle-income countries

21-11-2022

Major changes over the past ten years have made it easier to access a range of medicines for the people who need them most. A growing number of drug development companies are willing to sign voluntary licensing agreements that allow the manufacture and commercialization of individual medicines to meet critical health system needs, especially in low-income countries. The establishment of the Medicines Patent Pool (MPP) has significantly accelerated voluntary licensing and improved access to medicines, for example by expanding the geographic coverage of many licenses and mandatory quality assurance of licensed products. Agreements on voluntary licensing of medicines for HIV, tuberculosis and COVID-19were signed bilaterally or through the MRR. Until now, however, antibiotics, with the exception of drugs for tuberculosis, have never been the subject of such agreements.

Voluntary Licensing Breakthrough

June 15, 2022 Shionogi & Co., Ltd. (Shionogi) and the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (officially GARDP Foundation, or GARDP) have signed a licensing and technology transfer agreement to facilitate the availability of cefiderocol, an antibiotic for the treatment of adults with a range of serious bacterial infections that may be resistant to others. types of antibiotics. Cefiderocol is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency and is on the World Health Organization (WHO) List of Essential Medicines. To facilitate the manufacture, commercialization, and proper use of cefiderocol in Shionogi’s licensed territory, GARDP and the Clinton Foundation’s Access to Healthcare Initiative (CHAI) have signed a collaboration agreement under which CHAI has primary responsibility for the process of selecting a suitable manufacturer and will participate in the work in all other directions.

Together, these agreements could make cefiderocol available to a wide range of countries where new antibiotics are late or not available at all. This license extends to the public and private sectors in all low income countries, most middle and upper middle income countries, and a number of high income countries. In total, this list includes 135 countries (nearly 70% of all countries in the world), which account for a significant proportion of the world’s population living in areas where antibiotic resistance is most common (see a summary of the license agreement and a recent study on the global burden of antibiotic resistance). antibiotics).

The collaboration between GARDP, Shionogi and CHAI has been a breakthrough in the use of voluntary licensing to provide access to new antibiotics. In particular, this licensing agreement creates a new paradigm for the licensing of important medicines other than HIV, malaria and tuberculosis, which have been the focus of development in the global health system. This license agreement is also strategically important because it is the first such agreement for antibiotics based on public health priorities. It is also important that the license is granted by one of the few pharmaceutical companies of medium and large size actively engaged in the development of antibiotics.

Technology transfer, reasonable cost and appropriate use

Three other aspects of this cooperation should be noted: technology transfer , moderate cost and appropriate use. If a manufacturer requests a technology transfer, Shionogi transfers one of its manufacturing process technology, including related know-how, to a single manufacturer sub-licensee. If the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) for cefiderocol and the finished pharmaceutical product are produced by different organizations, Shionogi provides each of them with a part of the technology. Together, these parts make it possible to go from API to finished pharmaceutical product. Shionogi also provides access to the documents and rights needed to facilitate product registration by regulatory authorities.

In order to ensure that the drug is available at an affordable price, Shionogi has waived reimbursement of its costs from a share of sales of cefiderocol in low- and lower-middle-income countries in the license area. For cost recovery purposes, Shionogi will receive 5% and 9% of sales in upper-middle-income countries and high-income countries, respectively, in the designated territory. These conditions compare favorably with cost-recovery fees under other recently published licenses in territories that include upper-middle-income and high-income countries.

Efforts to increase access to antibiotics need to ensure the quality of production and proper use of these products. Counterfeit or low-quality antibiotics, as well as their overuse or misuse, can contribute to the development of resistance. Thus, the license agreement must contain a requirement that the licensed product be manufactured by a sub-licensee that is capable of demonstrating quality assurance. Validation may be approval under a WHO prequalification program or the fulfillment of stringent requirements from a regulatory body (eg a WHO-listed regulator). In addition, agreements with sub-licensees and the sub-license acquisition plan (which is developed jointly with sub-licensees) must include provisions for responsible planning and management, providing for proper use and complementing other activities and partnerships in the field of responsible planning and management.

The first of many

The text of the Licensing and Technology Transfer Agreement between Shionogi and GARDP has been published in full to facilitate new voluntary antibiotic licensing agreements in the future. This document specifies who is the owner of the intellectual property resulting from this agreement in terms of both the manufacturing process and R&D activities. It is hoped that this licensing agreement will serve as a starting point for similar agreements that will increase access to antibiotics in the future.