How is rotator cuff tendinitis diagnosed. What are the most effective treatments for rotator cuff injuries. Which exercises can help relieve rotator cuff pain. When is surgery necessary for a rotator cuff tear.

Understanding Rotator Cuff Anatomy and Function

The rotator cuff is a crucial component of shoulder mobility and stability. It consists of four tendons: the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis. These tendons work together to attach muscles to the scapula (shoulder blade) and humerus (upper arm bone), enabling a wide range of shoulder movements.

What is the primary function of the rotator cuff? The rotator cuff tendons collaborate to stabilize the shoulder joint, facilitate shoulder rotation, and allow for arm elevation above the head. Understanding this anatomy is essential for comprehending rotator cuff injuries and their impact on shoulder function.

Identifying Symptoms of Rotator Cuff Tendinitis

Rotator cuff tendinitis is the most common cause of shoulder pain, particularly affecting individuals whose occupations or hobbies involve repetitive or overhead movements. Recognizing the symptoms early can lead to more effective treatment and faster recovery.

• Initial dull ache around the outside tip of the shoulder
• Pain worsening with pushing, pulling, or overhead movements
• Discomfort when lying on the affected shoulder
• Night pain, especially when rolling onto the affected side
• Difficulty with daily activities like dressing

Can rotator cuff tendinitis progress to more severe conditions? Yes, if left untreated, tendinitis can lead to fraying or tearing of tendon tissue, potentially resulting in a rotator cuff tear.

Diagnostic Approaches for Rotator Cuff Injuries

Accurate diagnosis is crucial for effective treatment of rotator cuff injuries. Healthcare providers typically employ a combination of methods to assess the condition and determine the appropriate course of action.

Physical Examination

The primary diagnostic tool for rotator cuff tendinitis is a thorough physical examination. During this assessment, the clinician will:

• Check for tenderness in the subacromial space
• Evaluate pain responses during specific arm movements
• Test muscle strength and range of motion
• Potentially administer a lidocaine injection to assess strength without pain interference

Imaging Studies

In certain cases, particularly when a tear is suspected or conservative treatment has been ineffective, imaging studies may be ordered:

1. X-rays: To rule out other shoulder conditions or bone abnormalities
2. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Provides detailed images of soft tissues, including tendons and muscles

How does a clinician differentiate between tendinitis and a tear? Pain with normal muscle strength typically suggests tendinitis, while pain accompanied by weakness may indicate a tear.

Conservative Treatment Strategies for Rotator Cuff Tendinitis

Most cases of rotator cuff tendinitis can be effectively managed with non-surgical approaches. The primary goals of conservative treatment are to reduce inflammation, alleviate pain, and restore shoulder function.

Initial Pain Management

• Ice therapy: Apply ice packs to the affected area for 15-20 minutes every 4-6 hours during the first few days
• Rest: Avoid activities that exacerbate pain and give the shoulder time to heal
• Over-the-counter pain medications: NSAIDs like ibuprofen can help reduce pain and inflammation

Physical Therapy and Exercise

As pain subsides, a structured exercise program becomes crucial for recovery:

1. Range of motion exercises: Gentle stretches to improve flexibility
2. Strengthening exercises: Focus on rotator cuff and shoulder blade muscles
3. Postural exercises: Improve overall shoulder mechanics

Why is physical therapy important for rotator cuff recovery? Physical therapy not only aids in healing but also helps prevent future injuries by addressing underlying muscle imbalances and improving shoulder biomechanics.

Advanced Treatment Options for Persistent Rotator Cuff Pain

When conservative measures fail to provide relief, healthcare providers may consider more advanced treatment options to address rotator cuff injuries.

Corticosteroid Injections

Corticosteroid injections into the subacromial space can provide significant pain relief and reduce inflammation. However, these injections are typically limited to a few times per year to avoid potential tendon weakening.

Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP) Therapy

PRP therapy involves injecting a concentration of the patient’s own platelets to promote healing. While still considered experimental, some studies have shown promising results for rotator cuff injuries.

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy (ESWT)

ESWT uses high-energy sound waves to stimulate healing in the affected tendon. This non-invasive treatment may be beneficial for chronic rotator cuff tendinitis that hasn’t responded to other conservative measures.

Are these advanced treatments suitable for all rotator cuff injuries? The appropriateness of these treatments depends on the specific nature of the injury, its severity, and the patient’s overall health status. Consultation with a specialist is crucial for determining the best approach.

Surgical Interventions for Rotator Cuff Tears

While many rotator cuff injuries can be managed conservatively, some cases, particularly large tears or those resulting from acute trauma, may require surgical intervention.

Types of Surgical Procedures

1. Arthroscopic repair: Minimally invasive procedure using small incisions
2. Open surgery: Traditional approach with a larger incision
3. Mini-open repair: Combines arthroscopic and open techniques

The choice of surgical technique depends on factors such as tear size, location, and surgeon expertise. All three procedures have shown similar long-term outcomes, though arthroscopic and mini-open approaches typically result in shorter hospital stays and less post-operative pain.

Candidates for Rotator Cuff Surgery

Surgical repair is often recommended for:

• Young patients with acute, traumatic tears
• Major tears diagnosed early
• Older individuals with high shoulder demand occupations or activities

What factors influence the success of rotator cuff surgery? The outcome of surgery depends on various factors, including the size and chronicity of the tear, the patient’s age and overall health, and adherence to post-operative rehabilitation protocols.

Rehabilitation and Recovery Following Rotator Cuff Treatment

Regardless of whether treatment is conservative or surgical, proper rehabilitation is crucial for optimal recovery and prevention of future injuries.

Timeline for Recovery

Recovery time varies depending on the severity of the injury and the treatment approach:

• Mild tendinitis: 2-4 weeks with conservative treatment
• Moderate to severe tendinitis or small tears: Several months of rehabilitation
• Surgical repair: 4-6 months for full recovery, with some cases taking up to a year

Phases of Rehabilitation

1. Protection phase: Immobilization and gentle passive motion
2. Early recovery: Progressive range of motion exercises
3. Intermediate phase: Introduction of strengthening exercises
4. Advanced strengthening: Sport or occupation-specific exercises
5. Return to full activity: Gradual resumption of normal activities

Why is a structured rehabilitation program essential after rotator cuff treatment? A well-designed rehab program ensures proper healing, restores shoulder function, and helps prevent re-injury by addressing any underlying biomechanical issues.

Prevention Strategies for Rotator Cuff Injuries

While not all rotator cuff injuries can be prevented, certain strategies can significantly reduce the risk of developing problems or experiencing recurrent injuries.

Lifestyle Modifications

• Proper posture: Maintain good posture to reduce shoulder strain
• Ergonomic adjustments: Optimize workstations to minimize repetitive shoulder stress
• Activity modification: Use proper form during sports and avoid overuse

Strengthening and Flexibility Exercises

Regular exercise targeting the rotator cuff and surrounding muscles can improve shoulder stability and function:

1. Shoulder blade squeezes
2. External and internal rotation exercises
3. Wall slides
4. Doorway stretches

How often should preventive exercises be performed? Aim for 2-3 sessions per week, focusing on proper form rather than high repetitions or heavy weights.

By understanding the anatomy of the rotator cuff, recognizing early symptoms of injury, and implementing appropriate treatment and prevention strategies, individuals can maintain healthy shoulders and minimize the impact of rotator cuff problems. Whether managing mild tendinitis or recovering from surgery, a comprehensive approach involving proper diagnosis, targeted treatment, and dedicated rehabilitation is key to achieving optimal shoulder function and pain relief.

What to do about rotator cuff tendinitis

The best way to treat rotator cuff tendonitis, the most common cause of shoulder pain, is with simple home therapies.

Swinging a tennis racket, digging in the garden, placing a book on a high shelf, and reaching back to insert your arm into a sleeve — these are some of the movements made possible by the shoulder’s enormous range of motion. We use this mobility in so many activities that when the shoulder hurts, it can be disabling. For younger people, sports injuries are the main source of trouble, but the rest of us have more to fear from the normal wear and tear that, over time, weakens shoulder tissues and leaves them vulnerable to injury. The risk is greatest for people with occupations or hobbies that require repetitive or overhead movements, such as carpenters, painting, tennis, or baseball.

The most common cause of shoulder pain is rotator cuff tendonitis — inflammation of key tendons in the shoulder. The earliest symptom is a dull ache around the outside tip of the shoulder that gets worse when you push, pull, reach overhead, or lift your arm up to the side. Lying on the affected shoulder also hurts, and the pain may wake you at night, especially if you roll onto that shoulder. Even getting dressed can be a trial. Eventually, the pain may become more severe and extend over the entire shoulder.

When severe, tendonitis can lead to the fraying or tearing of tendon tissue. Fortunately, rotator cuff tendonitis and even tears can usually be treated without surgery.

Anatomy of the rotator cuff

The rotator cuff comprises four tendons — the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis; each of them attaches a muscle of the same name to the scapula (shoulder blade) and the humerus, or upper arm bone (see illustration). The tendons work together to stabilize the joint, rotate the shoulder, and lift the arm above the head. Rotator cuff tendonitis usually starts with inflammation of the supraspinatus tendon and may involve the three other tendons as the condition progresses.

Rotator cuff diagnosis

Most clinicians diagnose rotator cuff tendonitis by taking a history and performing a physical examination. However, if you’ve suffered a traumatic injury or the shoulder hasn’t improved with conservative therapy, or if a tear is suspected, an x-ray or MRI may be ordered. Your clinician will also check for tenderness at a point near the top of the upper arm (the subacromial space) and look for pain as the arm is raised and moved in certain ways. Your muscle strength and the shoulder’s range of motion will also be tested. Pain with normal muscle strength suggests rotator cuff tendonitis; pain with weakness may indicate a tear (see “What about a rotator cuff tear?”). Because it’s difficult to assess strength when the shoulder hurts, your clinician may inject a numbing agent (lidocaine) to deaden the pain before making an evaluation.

Rotator cuff treatment

The minimum time for recovery from rotator cuff tendonitis or a small tear is generally two to four weeks, and stubborn cases can take several months. Early on, the aim is to reduce swelling and inflammation of the tendons and relieve compression in the subacromial space. Later, exercises can be started to strengthen the muscles and improve range of motion.

During the first few days of rotator cuff tendonitis, apply an ice pack to the shoulder for 15 to 20 minutes every four to six hours. If you still have a lot of rotator cuff pain, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), such as ibuprofen, may be helpful. Your clinician may also suggest a corticosteroid injection, but there’s no clear evidence that this offers any advantage in the long term over physical therapy and NSAID use.

While you’re in pain from rotator cuff tendonitis, avoid lifting or reaching out, up, or overhead as much as possible. On the other hand, you don’t want to stop moving your shoulder altogether, because that can lead to “frozen shoulder,” a condition in which the tissues around the shoulder shrink and reduce its range of motion.

Rotator cuff stretches

The weighted pendulum exercise (see below) is recommended to reduce pressure on the rotator cuff by widening the space the tendons pass through. You can start this exercise almost immediately. As your rotator cuff tendonitis improves, physical therapy with stretching and muscle-strengthening exercises becomes important. A physical therapist can help you with these exercises, but most of them you can also do on your own. Before exercising, warm up your muscles and tendons in a warm shower or with a heating pad. You may experience some mild soreness with muscle-toning exercises — ice applied to the shoulder should help relieve it — but if you develop sharp or severe pain, stop the exercises for a few days.

Image: Jan-Otto/Getty Images

The Joint Pain Relief Workout: Healing exercises for your shoulders, hips, knees, and ankles

Is joint pain holding you back? Perhaps an achy ankle or sore knee is making it difficult to enjoy a run through your favorite park or even a short walk? Or a throbbing hip or shoulder prevents you from driving a golf ball down the fairway or from performing simple tasks like carrying a bag of groceries into your home? The exercises in this report can help relieve ankle, knee, hip, or shoulder pain, and help you become more active again, which in turn can help you stay independent long into your later years.  

Designed by knowledgeable exercise experts, our workouts are intended to strengthen the muscles that support your joints, increase flexibility in your joints, and improve range of motion. Done regularly, these exercises can ease pain, improve mobility, and help prevent further injury.

The Joint Pain Relief Workout includes four workouts targeting your ankles, hips, knees, and shoulders. You’ll find detailed instructions for each exercise, as well as information on how to adapt each exercise to make it either harder or easier, so you can tailor it to your ability. In addition, the report includes mini-workouts to address wrist and elbow problems, a planning worksheet to help you get started and stay motivated, and answers to common exercise questions.

Prepared by the editors of Harvard Health Publishing in consultation with Lauren E. Elson, M.D., Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Instructor, Harvard Medical School, and Michele Stanten, Certified Fitness Instructor, American Council on Exercise (2021)

If you haven’t been working out regularly, or even if you have, you may have some questions about getting started on the workouts in this report. Here we answer some common questions.

1. Which workout should I do?

That depends on which joints are bothering you. If it’s an ankle, turn to “Ankle workout”; if it’s your hips, turn to “Hip workout.” What if it’s both? It’s safe to do both routines as long as the problems you’re experiencing are described in the workout introductions. If you have more significant joint problems, or if you have any doubts, see your doctor before you start any workout!

Pair the workout or workouts you choose with the weekly walking program or another choice to get the cardio tune-up your body needs.

2. What if I can’t do all the reps or sets suggested?

Quality is much more important than quantity. While you want to challenge yourself, it’s okay if you can’t do all the recommended reps or sets at the start. Begin by trying to finish a single set of each exercise in the workout, then gradually work up to more as you progress. Within any set, only do as many reps as you can manage while following instructions, maintaining good form, and sticking to the specified tempo. If necessary, try lightening up the weight or resistance to make this possible.

3. How much weight or resistance should I use?

It’s wise to have a selection of light weights (1, 2, and 3 pounds) and resistance tubing or bands (light through medium resistance).

Select the highest weight or level of resistance that allows you to accomplish all of the following:

• maintain good form throughout the exercise
• stick to the specified tempo
• complete the suggested number of reps and sets
• achieve a full and pain-free range of motion.

Wait until you find it easy to meet all four requirements before you increase the weight or resistance for a particular exercise. If it’s difficult to meet any of the four, decrease the weight or resistance.

As you try the exercises, you’ll find some muscle groups are stronger than other groups. Thus, you’ll need to vary the amount of weight or resistance used in the course of your workout.

4. How often should I do the exercises in a workout?

A full workout incorporates warm-ups, muscle strengthening exercises, and stretches. We recommend doing full workouts two to three times a week. Strenuous exercise like strength training causes tiny tears in muscle tissue. The muscles grow stronger as the tears knit up. Always allow at least 48 hours between strength training sessions to give the muscles time to recover. Warm-ups and stretches can be done more often—even daily—to enhance flexibility.

Treatment Rotator cuff injury

WHAT IS A ROTATORIAL (ROTATOR) CUFF AND WHAT IS IT FOR?

Rotational (rotator) cuff of the shoulder – includes the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, small round and subscapularis muscles. These muscles are necessary to stabilize the head of the humerus and prevent it from moving when moving in the joint. In addition, these muscles allow for rotational movements in the shoulder in all directions.

The subscapularis muscle rotates the arm inward, the supraspinatus muscle raises the shoulder and “anchors” it, i. e. presses the head of the humerus into the articular cavity of the scapula when the shoulder is abducted to the side. In this case, the main abduction force is determined by the deltoid muscle, and the supraspinatus muscle works as a commander, directing the efforts of the deltoid muscle. The infraspinatus muscle rotates the shoulder outward, and the small round muscle rotates outward and brings the arm to the body. Damage to at least one of the four muscles leads to a sharp limitation of movement and loss of function of the shoulder joint.

CAUSES OF DAMAGE OR RUPTURE OF THE ROTATOR (ROTATOR) CUFF OF THE SHOULDER:

Rotator cuff injury can result from acute trauma. In this case, patients often describe a specific injury, after which pain appeared and the function of the shoulder was impaired.

In some cases, rupture of the rotator cuff is the result of chronic microtrauma to the muscles. Most often this occurs in persons whose professional activities are associated with frequent elevated position of the hand or throwing movements. For example, athletes in sports such as baseball, tennis, weightlifting and rowing. Constant microtraumatization of the tendons of the rotator cuff when hitting the ball, serving, throwing can lead to micro-ruptures of muscle fibers, the muscles gradually become thinner and over time, even with a minor injury, they can easily tear.

The rotator cuff tendons are prone to overstressing in teachers who write with chalk on a blackboard with their hand up, painters who paint walls, builders, and the like.

In some patients, rupture of the rotator cuff may be due to the development of degenerative-dystrophic changes in the muscles associated with aging, for example, in the elderly or a genetic predisposition.

TYPES OF DAMAGE OR RUPTURES OF THE ROTATOR (ROTATOR) CUFF OF THE SHOULDER:

Due to the cause of the rupture – traumatic or degenerative ruptures. According to the nature of the damage, partial and complete ruptures are distinguished. Partial ruptures do not pass through the entire thickness of the tendon, full ones extend through the entire thickness of the layers of the cuff. Traumatic injuries are divided into fresh, stale and chronic.

SYMPTOMS OF DAMAGE TO THE ROTATOR (ROTATOR) CUFF OF THE SHOULDER:

Signs of damage to the rotator cuff are pain and weakness in arm abduction or external rotation of the shoulder.

Pain intensifies in certain phases of movement, especially when abducting the arm

at an angle of 70 – 120 °.

DIAGNOSTICS OF DAMAGE TO THE ROTATOR CUFF:

Diagnostic tests:

To diagnose damage to the rotator cuff, special tests are used in which the doctor, bringing the patient’s hands to a certain position, evaluates the motor ability of the injured arm, and observes the patient’s reaction to his actions. The most informative tests are for weakness of abduction and weakness of external rotation of the shoulder. With extensive damage to the rotator cuff, symptoms of a falling arm are also characteristic (the patient cannot hold the passively abducted arm) and raising the shoulder girdle when trying to abduct the arm (Leclerc’s symptom).

Ultrasound – diagnostics

MRI – study

X-ray – research

TREATMENT OF A ROTATOR CUFF INJURY:

Treatment of a rotator cuff injury can be conservative or surgical. Conservative treatment is indicated for partial injuries, when there is hope for restoration of function without surgery. Conservative treatment is carried out along with immobilization of the shoulder joint with a special bandage (orthosis), and includes:

physiotherapy, the use of anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs, with severe pain – blockade with long-acting glucocorticoids. A very good clinical effect is given by intra-articular injections of platelet-rich plasma into the shoulder joint (“growth factors”, PRP).

If the duration of unsuccessful conservative treatment exceeds 2-3 months, it is necessary to raise the question of surgery.

SURGICAL TREATMENT OF DAMAGES TO THE ROTATOR (ROTATOR) CUFF OF THE SHOULDER:

Repairing a torn rotator cuff tendon is a fairly complex operation. Reconstruction of the rotator cuff can be performed both openly, through an incision on the shoulder, and arthroscopically. The disadvantages of open surgery are the need for large, traumatic incisions on the shoulder to provide access to damaged tendons, which carries a high risk of side effects, and a long recovery after surgery.

In our Medical Center, surgical treatment of rotator cuff injury is performed in a modern way, without incision of the joint – under arthroscopic control. Instead of an incision, local mini-punctures are performed, into one of which an arthroscope with a video camera is inserted, and into the other, instruments for the operation. An enlarged image from the video camera is transmitted to the video monitor, which allows the doctor to examine in detail all the structures of the joint and identify the location of the damage.

The essence of the arthroscopic operation is that the rupture is sutured, and if the tendon is torn off from the place of fixation, then a suture is performed using special “anchor” fixators.

At the first stage of the operation, the joint is cleaned – the removal of all non-viable, degenerative – altered tissues of the rotator cuff. Then the area of ​​the humerus where the rotator cuff was torn or torn off is cleared of soft tissue remnants so that the tendon grows better to it. Usually, 2-3 anchors are required to fix a torn tendon. The latch consists of an anchor and threads. The anchor is attached to the bone, and the tendon is stitched with threads.

The choice of a specific type of anchor is made by the operating surgeon, but in general, the patient should also be informed about which anchor is planned to be used in his case. We recommend using clamps from world-famous companies that have proven themselves for a long time.

REHABILITATION AFTER SHOULDER ARTHROSCOPY:

Properly performed surgery allows you to quickly start active rehabilitation, to prevent the development of complications and optimize the recovery time.

After shoulder arthroscopy, the arm is immobilized in the abduction position for several weeks using a special splint. Such immobilization reduces tendon tension and reduces the risk of re-rupture, creates favorable conditions for better healing of the tendon. The duration of immobilization is determined by the surgeon who performed the operation, since only he can assess the condition of the tendons and the strength of the suture.

Already from the first weeks after shoulder arthroscopy, patients are recommended to perform special exercises aimed at developing movements in the shoulder joint. However, their intensity and sequence should be selected by the operating doctor and an experienced rehabilitation specialist.

In our Medical Center, patients after shoulder arthroscopy are offered a whole range of rehabilitation measures. The rehabilitation program is selected individually and includes:

Special exercises and exercise therapy by rehabilitators of our Medical Center using the kinesiotherapy method. Exercises are aimed at improving the range of motion in the joint, preventing the development of contractures, increasing strength and endurance in the muscles of the shoulder girdle. Exercises are selected on an individual basis and performed on professional equipment in the rehabilitation room, under the supervision of experienced instructors – rehabilitologists. Some of the exercises are signed for the patient to carry out at home.

Physiotherapy on professional equipment from BTL: magnetotherapy, ultrasound therapy with the introduction of drugs, electrotherapy – reduce pain and swelling in the operated shoulder, prevent the formation of adhesions and scars, promote better healing, restore muscle tone.

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Rotator cuff injury

SportClinic offers accurate diagnosis, comprehensive treatment and rehabilitation for rotator cuff injuries.

To sign up for a consultation, call us: +7(812) 295-50-65.

The rotator cuff is a complex of four muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis) that make up the anterior external capsule of the shoulder joint. Each of them in its own way participates in the movement of the humerus, namely, abduction, inward and outward rotations. But their main function is the centralization of the head of the humerus in the articular fossa of the scapula. Their weakness, violation of the integrity of the tendons lead to dislocations and impaired motor function of the shoulder joint, the so-called instability.

The supraspinatus tendon is located above the others and in a narrow place – this is the reason for the high frequency of its injury. The tendons of the muscles of the rotator cuff have a poor blood supply, which is why degenerative changes quickly occur when they are traumatized during frequent repetitive movements associated with tension. At risk are athletes involved in volleyball, basketball, handball, javelin throwing, shot put, water polo. But not only in this category of people, injuries of the shoulder joint can occur. With age, the frequency of these injuries increases due to the anatomical features of the joint up to 10%.

Types of damage

There are traumatic (one-time) deformities that occur with a strong sharp blow, fall or dislocation and degenerative ones associated with impaired blood supply, when even slight movements lead to injury to the cuff.

Rotator cuff injury may be of the following forms:

1. Complete rupture of the rotator cuff – in this case, the patient loses the ability to abduct the arm, rotate outward.
2. Incomplete rupture of the cuff – abduction is possible with the elimination of pain.
3. Chronic degenerative changes (tendinosis) – there is muscle wasting, limitation of mobility.
4. Impingement syndrome – impingement of the muscles of the rotator cuff.
5. Subacromial bursitis – inflammation of the synovial bursa.

Symptoms

Pain occurs, as a rule, in motion. Pain may differ in localization, since in some cases different muscle tendons are deformed. The tendon of the supraspinatus muscle is most often damaged, which is manifested by the inability (or its decrease) to abduct the arm. In the acute stage, edema and hemorrhages are possible. As during an acute injury, as well as during a chronic process, the centralization of the head of the shoulder is disturbed, which leads to dislocations, injuries of the articular lip.

Diagnostics

The earlier a problem is identified, the better the treatment prognosis. With the developed degenerative changes in the tendons of the muscles, it will not be possible to completely restore the previous functionality of the charter. That is why it is so important to seek treatment at the first sign of symptoms. Physical examination and appropriate tests allow the doctor to determine the location of the injury. X-ray examination, ultrasound of the joint, magnetic resonance imaging allow you to visualize and clarify its degree and prevalence. Arthroscopic surgery is the most accurate method for diagnosing rotator cuff deformities.

Treatment of rotator cuff injuries

Conservative treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and intra-articular injections gives relief to the patient, but only for a short time. Surgical treatment of patients at a relatively young age is carried out in almost all cases, since it is possible to restore joint function and eliminate pain. Arthroscopy is by far the most effective and safe method of treating rotator cuff injuries. With this minimally invasive operation, the risk of injury to surrounding tissues is reduced, good intraoperative visualization of the process is provided, and there is an extensive possibility of fixing and restoring damaged structures.

The variability of operations is enormous, since no two pathologies are identical. However, general principles of surgical procedures include:

• subacromial decompression (removal of the subacromial bursa, removal of osteophytes (abnormal bone growths) and partial removal of the ligaments and acromial end of the clavicle;
• fixation of the cuff tendon either edge to edge or to the bone tissue of the shoulder;
• tenotomy or tenodesis (fixation) of the tendon of the long head of the biceps to the humerus.