How does the male reproductive system work. What are the main components of male reproductive anatomy. Where are the testes located and what is their function. How does sperm production occur in males. What role does the prostate gland play in male reproduction. How do hormones affect male reproductive health.

The External Male Reproductive Organs: Structure and Function

The male reproductive system consists of both external and internal organs that work together to produce sperm, secrete hormones, and enable sexual intercourse and reproduction. Let’s begin by examining the external structures:

The Penis: More Than Meets the Eye

The penis is the most visible external male reproductive organ. It serves dual functions: urination and sexual intercourse. But what exactly makes up this complex organ?

• Shaft: The main body of the penis
• Glans: The sensitive tip of the penis
• Urethra: A tube running through the penis that carries both urine and semen
• Foreskin: A retractable fold of skin covering the glans (absent in circumcised males)

During sexual arousal, spongy tissue within the penis fills with blood, causing an erection. This allows the penis to become firm enough for sexual intercourse.

The Scrotum: Nature’s Temperature Control

The scrotum is a loose sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. Its primary function is to house and protect the testes. But why are the testes located outside the body?

Sperm production requires a temperature slightly lower than normal body temperature. The scrotum’s location allows it to regulate testicular temperature by moving closer to or farther from the body as needed. This clever design ensures optimal conditions for sperm development.

Inside the Male Reproductive System: A Complex Network

While the external organs are easily visible, the internal structures of the male reproductive system are equally crucial for reproductive function. Let’s delve deeper into these hidden components:

Testes: The Powerhouses of Male Reproduction

The testes, also known as testicles, are oval-shaped glands located within the scrotum. They serve two primary functions:

1. Sperm production: The testes contain seminiferous tubules where sperm cells are continuously produced.
2. Hormone secretion: They produce testosterone, the primary male sex hormone responsible for developing and maintaining male characteristics.

How long does it take for sperm to fully develop? The process of spermatogenesis, from start to finish, takes approximately 74 days. This continuous cycle ensures a constant supply of mature sperm.

The Epididymis: Sperm’s Maturation Station

After sperm cells are produced in the testes, they travel to the epididymis. This highly coiled tube, located at the back of each testicle, serves several important functions:

• Storage: The epididymis can store sperm for several weeks
• Maturation: Sperm cells complete their development here, gaining motility
• Transport: It moves sperm towards the vas deferens

The journey through the epididymis takes about two weeks, during which time the sperm acquire the ability to swim and fertilize an egg.

The Sperm Superhighway: From Production to Ejaculation

Once sperm cells have matured in the epididymis, they begin their journey towards potential fertilization. This path involves several key structures:

Vas Deferens: The Long and Winding Road

The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that connects the epididymis to the urethra. Its primary function is to transport mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation. Interestingly, the vas deferens is the target of vasectomy procedures, a form of male sterilization.

Seminal Vesicles: Adding to the Mix

Located behind the bladder, the seminal vesicles are small glands that produce a significant portion of the fluid in semen. This fluid contains fructose, which provides energy for sperm cells, and proteins that help coagulate semen after ejaculation.

Prostate Gland: The Great Facilitator

The prostate gland, about the size of a walnut, surrounds the urethra just below the bladder. It produces an alkaline fluid that forms part of the seminal fluid, protecting sperm from the acidic environment of the vagina. The prostate also helps propel semen during ejaculation through muscular contractions.

The Urethra: A Dual-Purpose Pathway

The urethra is a tube that runs from the bladder through the penis, serving as the final pathway for both urine and semen. How does the body prevent urine and semen from mixing? A muscular sphincter at the base of the bladder closes during sexual arousal, ensuring that only semen passes through the urethra during ejaculation.

Hormonal Control: The Unseen Conductors of Male Reproduction

While we’ve focused on the physical structures of the male reproductive system, it’s crucial to understand the role hormones play in regulating these processes:

Testosterone: The Male Powerhouse Hormone

Produced primarily in the testes, testosterone is responsible for:

• Development of male secondary sexual characteristics (deepening voice, body hair growth)
• Muscle and bone mass maintenance
• Sperm production
• Sex drive (libido)

The Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis

This complex feedback system involves the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, along with the testes. It regulates the production of testosterone and sperm through the following hormones:

• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary
• Testosterone and inhibin from the testes

This delicate balance ensures proper functioning of the male reproductive system throughout life.

Common Issues Affecting Male Reproductive Health

Like any complex system, the male reproductive tract can experience various problems. Some common issues include:

Erectile Dysfunction: More Than Just a Physical Problem

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse. It can have physical causes (such as cardiovascular disease or diabetes) or psychological factors (stress, anxiety, depression). Treatment options range from lifestyle changes to medication and therapy.

Prostate Problems: A Common Concern for Aging Men

As men age, the prostate gland often enlarges, potentially causing urinary issues. Conditions affecting the prostate include:

• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH): Non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate
• Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland
• Prostate cancer: The most common cancer in men (excluding skin cancer)

Regular check-ups and screenings are crucial for early detection and treatment of prostate issues.

Testicular Health: Self-Exams Save Lives

Testicular cancer, while relatively rare, is the most common cancer in young men. Regular self-examinations can help detect any unusual lumps or changes early. Other testicular issues include:

• Varicocele: Enlarged veins in the scrotum
• Hydrocele: Fluid buildup around the testicle
• Epididymitis: Inflammation of the epididymis

Maintaining Male Reproductive Health: Prevention and Care

Taking care of your reproductive health is an essential part of overall well-being. Here are some tips for maintaining optimal male reproductive health:

1. Practice safe sex to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
2. Perform regular testicular self-exams
3. Maintain a healthy weight and exercise regularly
4. Avoid smoking and excessive alcohol consumption
5. Manage stress through relaxation techniques or therapy
6. Eat a balanced diet rich in antioxidants and essential nutrients
7. Schedule regular check-ups with your healthcare provider

By understanding the intricacies of the male reproductive system and taking proactive steps to maintain its health, men can ensure optimal reproductive function and overall well-being throughout their lives.

Advances in Male Reproductive Medicine: Looking to the Future

As our understanding of male reproductive biology grows, so do the treatment options and technologies available. Some exciting areas of research and development include:

Male Contraception: Beyond Condoms and Vasectomies

Researchers are exploring new methods of male contraception, including:

• Hormonal gels applied to the skin
• Non-hormonal pills that temporarily halt sperm production
• Reversible vas deferens blockers

These advancements could provide men with more options for family planning and shared responsibility in contraception.

Fertility Treatments: Helping Couples Conceive

For men struggling with infertility, new treatments are constantly being developed. These include:

• Advanced sperm retrieval techniques for men with low sperm counts
• Genetic screening of sperm to improve IVF success rates
• Stem cell therapies to potentially restore sperm production

These innovations offer hope to couples facing fertility challenges.

Regenerative Medicine: Repairing and Restoring Function

Emerging technologies in regenerative medicine show promise for treating various male reproductive issues:

• 3D-printed prosthetic testicles for cancer survivors
• Engineered tissue grafts for repairing damaged reproductive organs
• Gene therapy for treating inherited reproductive disorders

While many of these technologies are still in the experimental stage, they represent exciting possibilities for the future of male reproductive health.

Understanding the complexities of the male reproductive system is crucial not only for individual health but also for advancing medical treatments and technologies. As research continues to uncover new insights into male reproductive biology, we can look forward to improved diagnostic tools, more effective treatments, and innovative solutions to long-standing reproductive health challenges.

By staying informed about these developments and taking an active role in their reproductive health, men can ensure they’re well-equipped to navigate the evolving landscape of male reproductive medicine. Whether it’s adopting new preventive strategies, exploring cutting-edge fertility treatments, or participating in clinical trials, the future of male reproductive health is full of promise and potential.

Overview of the Male Anatomy

The following is an overview of the male reproductive anatomy:

Scrotum. The bag of skin that holds and helps to protect the testicles. The testicles make sperm and, to do this, the temperature of the testicles needs to be cooler than the inside of the body. This is why the scrotum is located outside of the body.

Testes (testicles). The testes are 2 small organs that are found inside the scrotum. The testes are responsible for making sperm and are also involved in producing a hormone called testosterone. Testosterone is an important hormone during male development and maturation for developing muscles, deepening the voice, and growing body hair.

Epididymis. A long tube that is located near each testicle. The epididymis is the tube which moves the sperm from the testicles.

Vas deferens. This is a tube in which the sperm is stored and it carries the sperm out of the scrotal sac. The vas deferens is between the epididymis and the urethra and connects these together.

Seminal vesicles. The sac-like glands that lie behind the bladder and release a fluid that forms part of semen.

Prostate gland. It is about the size of a walnut, and surrounds the neck of the bladder and urethra—the tube that carries urine from the bladder. It is partly muscular and partly glandular with ducts opening into the prostatic portion of the urethra. It is made up of 3 lobes: a center lobe with 1 lobe on each side. The prostate gland secretes a slightly alkaline fluid that forms part of the seminal fluid, a fluid that carries sperm.

Urethra. This is a tube that allows urine to flow outside the body. It is also the channel for semen to pass during ejaculation. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten. This squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals happen in the correct order, normal urination happens.

Penis. The external reproductive organ of the male. The penis is made up of 2 parts, the shaft and the glans. The glans is the tip of the penis, while the shaft is the main part of the penis and contains the tube (urethra) that drains the bladder. All boys are born with a foreskin, or a covering over the tip of the penis. Some boys are circumcised. This means that this covering of skin is removed. Other boys are not circumcised and may have skin that covers the tip of the penis.

Male reproductive system | healthdirect

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The male reproductive system contains the external genitals (the penis, testes and the scrotum) and internal parts, including the prostate gland, vas deferens and urethra. A man’s fertility and sexual traits depend on the normal functioning of the male reproductive system, as well as hormones released from the brain.

Organs and functions

The male reproductive system is responsible for reproduction. It is made of the following parts:

• Penis — the organ used for urination and sexual intercourse. It has spongy tissue which can fill with blood to cause an erection. It contains the urethra, which carries both urine and semen.
• Scrotum — this is a loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body, behind the penis. It holds the testes in place.
• Testes (or testicles) — these are a pair of egg-shaped glands that sit in the scrotum, on the outside of the body. They produce sperm and testosterone, which is the male sex hormone.
• Epididymis — this is a highly coiled tube that lies at the back of the testes. All sperm from the testes must pass through the epididymis, where they mature and start to ‘swim’.
• Vas deferens — this is a thick-walled tube joined to the epididymis. It carries sperm from the epididymis up to the prostate gland and urethra.
• Prostate gland — this is a walnut-sized gland that sits in the middle of the pelvis. The urethra runs through the middle of it. It produces the fluid secretions that support and nourish the sperm.
• Urethra — this is a tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at the end of the penis. The urethra carries both urine and sperm.
• Seminal vesicles — these are 2 small glands above the prostate gland that make up much of the fluid in semen.

Diagram showing the external and internal parts of the male reproductive system.

The brain also has an important role in reproductive function, as it controls the release of sex hormones.

What can go wrong?

As with any other part of the human body, things can sometimes go wrong with the male reproductive system, including:

If you notice any symptoms or problems, it is important to see your doctor quickly. Early treatment can avoid serious long-term problems.

Learn more here about the development and quality assurance of healthdirect content.

Last reviewed: April 2021

The Male Reproductive System: Organs, Function, and More

The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the following functions:

• To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen)
• To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
• To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male reproductive system

Unlike the female reproductive system, most of the male reproductive system is located outside of the body. These external structures include the penis, scrotum, and testicles.

• Penis: This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the end of the penis. The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision. The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the penis. The glans of the penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.

  The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of special, sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection.

  Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

• Scrotum: This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum acts as a “climate control system” for the testes. For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than body temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.

• Testicles (testes): These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubes are responsible for producing sperm cells.

The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory organs, include the following:

• Epididymis: The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It also is the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

• Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm to outside of the body, in preparation for ejaculation.

• Ejaculatory ducts: These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles (see below). The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.

• Urethra: The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen when the man reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

• Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy to help them move. The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.

• Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.

• Bulbourethral glands: Also called Cowper’s glands, these are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

 

How Does the Male Reproductive System Function?

The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that regulate the activity of many different types of cells or organs. The primary hormones involved in the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone.

Follicle-stimulating hormone is necessary for sperm production (spermatogenesis), and luteinizing hormone stimulates the production of testosterone, which is also needed to make sperm. Testosterone is responsible for the development of male characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass, facial hair growth, voice change, and sex drive.

Male sexual and reproductive organs

The male sexual organs include the penis, testicles and prostate gland. The male sex hormones are also important for a man’s sexuality and sex life. 

The male reproductive system includes the penis; the testes and epididymides, held within the scrotum; the vas deferens, and internally, the seminal vesicles, and the prostate gland. 

The penis is the male sex organ. It is made up of the shaft and the head. The head of the penis is covered by a moveable piece of skin called the foreskin. 

The urethra is a tube that runs from the bladder, through the middle of the penis, to carry urine out of the body.  

The penis has a rich blood supply, as well as a muscle layer and nerves. When sexually aroused the blood flow increases and the penis becomes erect.  

The testes produce sperm and the hormone testosterone. Next to each testis is the epididymis, a tube where sperm is stored. When the penis is erect sperm moves from the epididymis and through the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles.  

The seminal vesicles make a fluid that mixes with sperm. 

The prostate gland, is about the size of a walnut. It surrounds the first part of the urethra and adds more fluid to the sperm. 

During orgasm, the prostate squeezes this fluid into the urethra and out of the body. 

For information about cancers that can start in the male reproductive system, go to cruk.org/cancer-types.

The penis and testicles

The penis is partly inside and partly outside the body. It’s made up of several types of tissue. These include skin, muscle, blood vessels and nerves. Inside the penis is the urethra. Urine and semen flow through this tube and eventually pass out of the small slit at the end of the penis (the meatus).

The end of the penis is also known as the head of the penis (glans). It’s normally covered by a piece of skin called the foreskin (prepuce). But some men may have had the foreskin removed during an operation called a circumcision. This operation is usually done at birth but may be done later in life.

For most men the ridge below the head of the penis (the frenulum) is the most sensitive part of their penis. The penis has a rich blood supply, as well as a muscle layer and nerves. When sexually aroused the blood flow increases and the penis becomes erect.

The scrotum is the pouch of skin that hangs below the penis and holds both testicles (testes). The testicles are part of the male reproductive system.

From the age of puberty the testicles produce sperm, which can fertilise a female egg. Next to each testicle is the epididymis, a tube where sperm is stored. The testicles produce the male sex hormone, testosterone.

The prostate gland

The prostate is a small gland about the size of a walnut. It surrounds the top part of the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the penis (the urethra). The same tube also carries semen. The prostate produces a thick clear fluid, which is an important part of the semen.

The growth and function of the prostate gland depends on the male sex hormone testosterone, which is produced in the testes.

Other organs

A man’s back passage (anal area), chest and nipples may be very sensitive during sexual activity. Like women, men are all different and there may be other parts of their body that are more sensitive.

Male sex hormones

Testosterone is the main male sex hormone. It is made in the testicles. Testosterone is the main cause of male qualities such as:

• a deep voice
• body hair growth
• muscle development
• the ability to have an erection
• sex drive (libido)

The Penis – Structure – Muscles – Innervation

The penis is an external organ of the male reproductive system. It has two main functions:

• Sexual intercourse – During erotic stimulation, the penis undergoes erection, becoming engorged with blood. Following emission, (mixing of the components of semen in the prostatic urethra) ejaculation can occur, whereby semen moves out of the urethra through the external urethral orifice. Finally, the penis undergoes remission, returning to a flaccid state.

• Micturition – The penis also has an important urinary role. It contains the urethra, which carries urine from the bladder to the external urethral orifice, where it is expelled from the body.

In this article, we will look at the functions and structure of the penis and how these give rise to certain clinical conditions.

Note: In the anatomical position the penis is erect, so the dorsal side is that closest to the abdomen and the ventral side is closest to the testes.

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Structure of the Penis

The penis can be anatomically divided into three parts:

• Root – the most proximal, fixed part of the penis. It is located in the superficial perineal pouch of the pelvic floor, and is not visible externally. The root contains three erectile tissues (two crura and bulb of the penis), and two muscles (ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus).

• Body – the free part of the penis, located between the root and glans. It is suspended from the pubic symphysis. It is composed of three cylinders of erectile tissue – two corpora cavernosa, and the corpus spongiosum.

• Glans – the most distal part of the of penis. It is conical in shape, and is formed by the distal expansion of the corpus spongiosum. This contains the opening of the urethra, termed the external urethral orifice.

Fig 1 – The three parts of the penis.

Erectile Tissues

The erectile tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal, producing an erection. The root and body of the penis are spanned by three masses of erectile tissue.

In the root, these tissues are known as the left and right crura, and the bulb of the penis. The bulb is situated in the midline of the penile root, and is traversed by the urethra. The left and right crura are located laterally; attached to the ipsilateral ischial ramus, and covered by the paired ischiocavernosal muscles.

The erectile tissues continue into the body of the penis. The left and right crura continue anteriorly into the dorsal part of the penis – they form the two corpora cavernosa. They are separated by the septum of the penis, although often incompletely. The bulb forms the corpus spongiosum, which lies ventrally. The male urethra runs through the corpus spongiosum – to prevent it becoming occluded during erection the corpus spongiosum fills to a reduced pressure.

Distally, the corpus spongiosum expands to form the glans penis.

Fig 2 – The erectile tissues of the penis.

Muscles

There are four muscles located in the root of the penis:

• Bulbospongiosus (x2) – associated with the bulb of the penis. It contracts to empty the spongy urethra of any residual semen and urine. The anterior fibres also aid in maintaining erection by increasing the pressure in the bulb of the penis.

• Ischiocavernosus (x2) – surrounds the left and right crura of the penis. It contracts to force blood from the cavernous spaces in the crura into the corpora cavernosa – this helps maintain erection.

Fascial Coverings

Each mass of erectile tissue has two fascial coverings. The most superficial layer, immediately under the skin, is the external fascia of Colles (which is in continuity with the fascia of Scarpa which covers the abdominal wall).

A deeper stratum is the deep fascia of the penis (also known as Buck’s fascia). This is a continuation of the deep perineal fascia, and forms a strong membranous covering which holds all three erectile tissues together.

Underneath the deep fascia is the strong fascia called tunica albuginea, forming an individual capsule around each cavernous body and fused in the midline. The incomplete septum between the two corpora is comprised of tunica albuginea.

Ligaments

The root of the penis is supported by two ligaments, which attach it to the surrounding structures:

• Suspensory ligament – a condensation of deep fascia. It connects the erectile bodies of the penis to the pubic symphysis.

• Fundiform ligament – a condensation of abdominal subcutaneous tissue. It runs down from the linea alba, surrounding the penis like a sling, and attaching to the pubic symphysis.

Skin

The skin of the penis is more heavily pigmented than that of the rest of the body. It is connected to the underlying fascias by loose connective tissue.

The prepuce (foreskin) is a double layer of skin and fascia, located at the neck of the glans. It covers the glans to a variable extent. The prepuce is connected to the surface of the glans by the frenulum, a median fold of skin on the ventral surface of the penis. The potential space between the glans and prepuce is termed the preputial sac.

Fig 3 – The penis with the prepuce retracted in order to reveal the glans. Note the skin fold of the frenulum (arrow).

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Neurovascular Supply

Vasculature

The penis receives arterial supply from three sources:

• Dorsal arteries of the penis
• Deep arteries of the penis
• Bulbourethral artery

These arteries are all branches of the internal pudendal artery. This vessel arises from the anterior division of the internal iliac artery.

Venous blood is drained from the penis by paired veins. The cavernous spaces are drained by the deep dorsal vein of the penis – this empties into the prostatic venous plexus. The superficial dorsal veins drain the superficial structures of the penis, such as the skin and cutaneous tissues.

Fig 4 – Arterial supply to the penis.

Innervation

The penis is supplied by S2-S4 spinal cord segments and spinal ganglia.

Sensory and sympathetic innervation to the skin and glans penis is supplied by the dorsal nerve of the penis, a branch of the pudendal nerve.

Parasympathetic innervation is carried by cavernous nerves from the peri-prostatic nerve plexus, and is responsible for the vascular changes which cause erection.

[start-clinical]

Clinical Relevance: Phimosis and Paraphimosis

Phimosis

Phimosis is a condition where the prepuce fits tightly over the glans and cannot be retracted. This condition may be congenital, but may also arise later in life due to inflammation and contraction of the preputial skin. It may cause local irritation due to accumulation of smegma (oily secretions produced by the penile skin) or even predispose to infections.

The main disadvantage is the inability to apply local hygiene – untreated phimosis is even related to penile carcinoma.

Fig 5 – Phimosis of the penis, where the foreskin cannot be retracted.

Paraphimosis

Paraphimosis is an acute condition that occurs when a tight prepuce is left retracted under the glans: this may cause oedema of the soft prepuce and further strangulation occurs.

[end-clinical]

[start-clinical]

Clinical Relevance: Functional Defects of the Penis

Erectile Dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction is the inability to maintain an erection. It is a common condition, which may result from a number of causes, most commonly of a vascular aetiology (such as hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, smoking or diabetes). Psychological causes include anxiety and depression.

Treatment is based on the aetiology. Most commonly used medications include PDE5 inhibitors, which inactivate the enzyme phosphodiesterase 5 at the corpora cavernosa level, relaxing the smooth muscle fibres of the corpora and the vessels. In this way, an improved arterial flow is achieved.

Priapism

Priapism is a serious condition where erection persists beyond or without sexual stimulation. It is almost always painful and results from blood becoming trapped in the erectile bodies, with no arterial flow.

Priapism that persists for more than four hours is a medical emergency: if left untreated, it may lead to corporal scarring and permanent erectile dysfunction.

[end-clinical]

handout 2

handout 2

Animal Science 434 – 1/26/98

Handout 2: Structure and Function of the Reproductive

System of the Bull, Boar and Stallion

General Structure and Function

A. The Testes. These primary organs have the dual function of
producing sperm cells, and also the male hormone, testosterone. The
testis is enclosed in the tunica albuginea surrounded by another tough tunic,
the tunica vaginalis. The seminiferous tubules are the site of sperm formation.
These in turn empty into collecting ducts, the rete testis, lined with cuboidal
epithelium. The supporting connective tissue joins centrally forming a fibrous
cord, the mediastinum testis.

B. The secondary sex organs are the ducts and tubes which
convey the sperm cells out of the testes and eventually out of the body.
They are listed in order in which sperm pass through them.

• Vas Efferentia (ductuli efferentes) – about 12 ducts arising
  from the rete testis, emerging from the testis and emptying into the epididymis.
  
• Epididymis – A large tortuous duct outside the testis through
  which the sperm migrate slowly. It is divided into the head, body and tail.
  The tail portion is the chief site of sperm storage.
• Vas Deferens (ductus deferens) – A slender tube connecting the
  epididymis with the urethra and which enlarges into an ampulla just before
  joining the urethra. (Often called vas deferens, when cut – vasectomy.)
• Urethra – The tube in the penis through which semen is discharged
  at the time of copulation, and through which urine is excreted.
• Penis – The organ of copulation.

C. The accessory sex glands

• Two seminal vesicles – contribute fluid to semen.
• Two bulbo-urethral glands (Cowper’s glands) – contribute fluid
  to semen.
• One prostate gland – contributes fluid to semen.

D. Protective, supporting, and other structures

• Scrotum – the pouch of skin surrounding and protecting the testes.
• External cremaster and tunica dartos muscles – regulate
  temperature of the testes by moving them closer to or farther away from
  the body wall.
• Spermatic cord – contains blood vessels, nerves, vas deferens,
  and muscles associated with the testes; includes the paminiform plexus.

The general location of the different parts of the reproductive tract
of the bull is shown in the following diagram.

While it is possible to show only 1 testis clearly in this diagram there
are two testes, and two sets of ducts carrying the sperm to the urethra.
The urethra is a single duct, which also carries urine from the bladder.

The testes are oval-shaped organs 4 to 5 inches in length, 2-1/2 to 3
inches in diameter, with the long axis being vertical. Each testis weighs
10 to 12 ounces in a mature bull. They lie outside the body cavity in a
pouch of skin called the scrotum. An important purpose of the scrotum is
to provide the testes with an environment which is a few degrees (2-8°C)
cooler than body temperature. This cooler temperature is necessary for the
formation of spermatozoa. Failure of the testes to descend from the abdomen
into the scrotum, associated normally with shortening of the gubernaculum
and intra-abdominal pressure, results in a condition known as cryptorchidism.
This will cause sterility if both testes fail to descend (bilateral cryptorchidism).
Unilateral cryptorchid animals may be fertile, but it is thought that this
condition may be inherited, and breeding males possessing this trait should
be avoided.

For many years the external cremaster muscle within the spermatic cord
has been thought of as the principle thermoregulator of the scrotum, drawing
the testes close to the abdomen when cold and relaxing when warm. However,
the tunica dartos muscle at the bottom of the scrotum also responds to temperature
changes and probably plays a major role in temperature regulation of the
testes. It has been shown that this latter muscle is sensitive to temperature
changes only in the presence of the male hormone, testosterone. Blood flowing
to the testis is cooled by adjacent venous return in a convoluted complex
of vessels called the pampiniform plexus, located just dorsal to the testes.

The testes are partially supported by the spermatic cord, which runs
from the abdomen and is attached to the testes in the scrotum. This band
of tissue, carrying the ductus deferens, blood vessels, nerves and muscles
associated with the testis, may be 8 to 10 inches or more in length.

The many convoluted seminiferous tubules in the testis in which the spermatozoa
are formed finally straighten and join to form the rete testis. Arising
from the rete testis are 12 or more out-going ducts, the vas efferentia,
which emerge from the testis and enter the epididymis. The epididymis is
a single large tortuous tubule lying on the surface of the testis. Its purpose
is to collect and store the sperm while the latter undergo a ripening process.
The different parts of the epididymis are referred to as the head, the body,
and the tail (caput, corpus and cauda). It is the tail of the epididymis
that the majority of sperm are stored. The relationships of these structures
are shown in Fig. 2.

From the epididymis, the spermatozoa are carried into the vas deferens,
the tube which carries the testicular products to the urethra of the penis.
The vas deferens are very small in diameter, having a cartilaginous cord-like
appearance, and each forms a saccular ampulla, 4 to 5 inches long and 1/2
inch in diameter, near the junction with the pelvic urethra. The two ampullae
empty into the urethra. The urethra serves as the common passage for urine,
and upon ejaculation for semen.

The organ of copulation is the penis. In the adult bull it is about 3
feet in length and about 1 inch in diameter. There is very little erectile
tissue present except in the root. Even in the relaxed state the penis is
very dense and firm. Behind the scrotum it forms an S-shaped curve, the
sigmoid flexure. During erection this flexure is straightened out, thus
increasing the length of the organ. Also, at the time of erection the bulbospongiosus
and ischiocavernosus muscles at the root of the penis contract and assist
in causing an erection and in ejecting the semen. The retractor penis muscle
assists in withdrawing the penis into the sheath after copulation. The sheath
is long and narrow. The preputial opening is a short distance behind the
navel and is usually surrounded by long hairs.

The accessory glands associated with the reproductive tract, secrete
a large part of the semen. In most species, these are the seminal vesicles,
the prostate, and the bulbo-urethal or Cowper’s glands (see Fig. 1). The
paired seminal vesicles are tortuous lobulated glands, which produce a large
volume of fluid which may flush the urethra and act as a vehicle for sperm
transport. This secretion also includes fructose. The prostate is a compound
gland lying over the urethra at the neck of the bladder. It produces a complex
secretion, which stimulates sperm activity. The paired Cowper’s glands lie
below the prostate on either side of the urethra, and produce a viscid mucus-like
lubricating substance. The secretions of all of the accessory glands plus
the spermatozoa and the secretions of the testes and tubes leading from
it make up the semen. These secretions aid in the nutrition of the sperm
and provide some buffering capacity.

Cross-Section of the Testis

If one takes thin slices from the testis and examines them with a microscope
at high magnification the testis is seen to be full of tiny tubules, the
seminiferous tubules. These tightly coiled tubules, thousands of yards in
total length, are lined with germinal epithelium, from which the sperm cells
are eventually formed. In between the tubules is found the interstitial
tissue. This tissue produces the male hormone, testosterone. Also, this
tissue gives some support to the testis. The cut seminiferous tubules and
interstitial tissue are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.

Reproductive System of the Boar

The preceding information on the bull applies in a general way to the
boar. The names of the different parts of the reproductive system are the
same. However, the relative sizes and arrangements of the various parts
may differ from the bull as shown in Fig. 4. The testes of the boar are
relatively large. They are suspended in an inverted position (compared to
the bull and ram) with the tail of the epididymis uppermost. Particularly
striking are the large Cowper’s glands. These are the source of the gelatinous
material in boar semen. Also, note the rotation of the testis relative to
the vertical position in the bull. The penis has no true glans at the tip.
The preputial pouch is pronounced in the boar. This contains some residual
urine and decomposing epithelial cells which contribute to the unpleasant
odor which may permeate boar meat.

Figure 4. The Boar.

 

Reproductive System of the Horse

The reproductive system of the stallion is shown in Fig. 5. Several differences
from the bull and boar are distinctive. In the relaxed state the testes
are nearly horizontal. They vary greatly in size depending upon the breed.
The body of the epididymis is large. The penis is a vascular-muscular type
and so enlarges greatly during erection. Considerable smegma accumulates
in the preputial cavity and the penis should be washed before collecting
semen or before copulation. There is no sigmoid flexure.

The Cowper’s glands (bulbo-urethral glands) are about 1-2 inches in diameter
and can be palpated rectally, in contrast with the bull. The seminal vesicles
and prostate also can be palpated rectally near the junction of the bladder
and the urethra.

Figure 5. The Stallion.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male Reproductive System: Labeled Diagram of Organs – Video & Lesson Transcript

Male Reproductive System Organs

The male reproductive system has a variety of functions: generating gametes, producing hormones like testosterone, and transporting gametes into the ejaculate and into the female reproductive system. To help it carry out its function, the male reproductive organ system is composed of external structures that serve in sexual function and protection and internal structures that work in producing gametes and other substances that aid in sexual functions. The main organs of the male reproductive system are:

• Penis
• Scrotum
• Testes (Testicles)
• Epididymis
• Vas Deferens
• Ejaculatory Ducts
• Urethra
• Seminal Vesicles
• Prostate Gland
• Bulbourethral Glands

The Male Reproductive System

External Male Reproductive Structures

External organs of the male reproductive system are present outside the body and are mainly utilized in the act of sexual intercourse. They consist of 3 main organs:

The External Male Reproductive Organs

Penis

The penis is the organ directly involved in sexual intercourse. It is composed of 3 parts: the root, body, and glans. The root is directly attached to the abdominal wall. The body is the cone shaped structure at the end of the penis. the glans is the head of the penis that contains sensitive nerve-endings required for sexual stimulations. The glans is sometimes covered with a layer of skin called the foreskin that is sometimes surgically excised, usually at birth, in a process called circumcision. The penis contains three cylindrical spongy tissue chambers that fill up with blood upon sexual stimulation, causing an erection, which makes penetrative sexual intercourse possible.

Scrotum

The scrotum is a loose sac-like structure that encapsulates the testes and provides the climate necessary for testes’ function. Its walls contain muscles that contract in response to temperature changes, holding the testes closer in colder temperatures and away from the body in hotter temperatures.

Testes

Testes are oval shaped organs that are the site of sperm production. Within the testes, structures called the seminiferous tubules produce the male gametes. In addition, the testes produce testosterone, which are the primary male hormones. The testes need to be at a temperature slightly below body temperature, so they hang below the penis in the scrotum. Most men have 2 testes.

Internal Male Reproductive Organs

Internal male reproductive organs are present inside the body. These are sometimes referred to as accessory organs. Accessory glands are composed of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands, and produce fluid secretions necessary for sperm function. Secretions from these glands combined with sperm is termed as the ejaculate or semen. Internal male reproductive organs include:

• Epididymis
• Vas Deferens
• Ejaculatory Ducts
• Urethra
• Seminal Vesicles
• Prostate Gland
• Bulbourethral Glands

Epididymis

The epididymis is a coiled tube present on each testicle that hosts sperm after they are produced. Sperm stored in the epididymis undergo further maturation, acquire motility, and reside there until ejaculation. Upon sexual stimulation and ejaculation, the epididymis contracts to push sperm into the vas deferens.

Vas Deferens

The vas deferens, also called ductus deferens, are long muscular tubes that transport sperm from the the epididymis to the urethra. An extended structure of the vas deferens named the ampulla also acts as storage chambers for semen. Upon male sterilization, the vas deferens is severed through a simple surgical procedure that prevents sperm transport outside the body.

Spermatic Cords

Spermatic cords are ducts that connect the testes to the abdominal cavity. They also contain nerves and muscles.

Ejaculatory ducts

Ejaculatory ducts empty the mixture of excretions produced by the seminal vesicles and the sperm transported by the vas deferens into the urethra.

Urethra

The urethra essentially carries urine from the bladder to be excreted from the body. However, in males, it also carries the ejaculated semen to the outside. Upon ejaculation, the flow of urine is restricted to allow only the passage of the ejaculate.

Seminal Vesicles

Seminal vesicles are pouches connected to the vas deferens and found below the bladder. They produce fluid secretions that contain sugars like fructose to aid in sperm motility.

Prostrate gland

The prostate gland is located in proximity to the rectum and also provides fluids that nourish the sperm.

Bulbourethral glands

The bulbourethral glands, also called Cowper’s glands, are small structures that produce fluids that lubricate the urethra and neutralize any acidity present due to urine excretions,

Sperm Functions

Sperm are haploid germ cells that serve as the male gamete that swims up the female reproductive tract to reach the Fallopian tubes, where the ovum is placed upon ovulation. A few million sperm cells are ejaculated, but only a few hundred sperm survive this journey and compete to fuse with the ovum in a process called fertilization. Upon fertilization, sperm provides its set of haploid chromosomes (23 in humans) to complete the normal diploid chromosome set and kickstart zygote formation.

A Sperm In Contact With an Ovum

Male Reproductive System Function

• Production of Sperm: sperm is produced within the seminiferous tubules of the testes in the process of spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis is a temperature dependent process, hence the testes being held at temperatures slightly below body temperature, and takes approximately 3 months to complete. Sperm is then stored in the epididymis until ejaculation.
• Production of Testosterone: in addition to spermatogenesis, cellular structures in the testes called Leydig cells produce testosterone. Testosterone in the primary male hormone and is essential for many bodily functions such as bone mass regulation.
• Sexual Reproduction: the male reproductive system is responsible for the placement of sperm into the female reproductive system in order for fertilization and zygote formation to occur.

Conception

Human conception is the process of sexual reproduction via the utilization of both male and female reproductive systems. Upon sexual stimulation, the penis becomes erect and is inserted into the female reproductive system–specifically, the vagina–and the semen containing secretions from the prostate, bulbourethral gland, and seminal vesicles combined with the sperm stored in the epididymis, is deposited into the vagina. The sperm then makes its way to the ovum to induce fertilization and, subsequently, human conception.

Lesson Summary

• The male reproductive system is composed of external and internal organs necessary for reproduction. Reproduction is the process in which organisms give rise to offsprings.
• The male reproductive system is responsible for generating male gametes, sperm, that are vital to forming the zygote, which develops into a fetus.
• During sexual intercourse, the ejaculate composed of sperm and fluid secretions from accessary glands are deposited in the female reproductive system and the sperm make their way into the female gamete to induce zygote formation.

90,000 Using charts and graphs in presentation

To create a simple chart from scratch in PowerPoint, on the Insert tab, click the Chart button, and then select the chart you want.

1. On the Insert tab, click the Chart button.

2. Select a chart type and double-click the desired chart.

   Tip: For information on how to choose the best chart to represent your data, see Available Chart Types.

3. On the sheet that appears, replace the placeholders with your own data.

4. When finished, close the sheet.

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Important:
Office 2010 is no longer supported by . Upgrade to Microsoft 365 to work remotely from any device and continue to receive support.

Update

To create a simple chart from scratch in PowerPoint, on the Insert tab, click the Chart button, and then select the chart you want.

1. On the tab, Insert , in the Illustrations group, click the Diagram button.

2. In the Insert Chart dialog box , click the arrows to view the chart types.

   Select the desired chart type and press the button OK .

   Tip: When you hover the mouse over a chart type, a tooltip appears with its name.

3. Change the data in Excel 2010.

   Then Excel can be closed.

4. On the File tab , click the Close button.The chart in PowerPoint will automatically update with the new data.

You can change the chart in PowerPoint by customizing its appearance, size, and position. Click the chart, and then make changes in the tab Design , Layout , or Format under the green Chart Tools tab. To add animation effects, use the tools on the Animation tab.

Note: If the group Chart Tools is not displayed, click anywhere in the chart.

You can change the chart data in PowerPoint. Click the chart, and then under the green Chart Tools tab select the Design tab and click the Modify Data button.For more information, see the article Modify data in an existing chart.

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Tips

• To get an idea of ​​what you can add or change to a chart, under Working with Charts , click the Design tabs , Layout , and Format and view the groups and options for each.

• You can also right-click to customize the structure, layout, and format for specific chart elements (such as chart axes or legend).

• Certain types of charts, such as organization charts, hierarchical charts, flowcharts, and repeating data charts, may be easier to create using SmartArt graphics.

Additional information

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Important:
Office 2007 is no longer supported by . Upgrade to Microsoft 365 to work remotely from any device and continue to receive support.

Update

Insert a chart or graph into a presentation

To create a simple chart from scratch in PowerPoint, on the Insert tab, click the Chart button, and then select the chart you want.

1. In PowerPoint 2007, click the placeholder where you want to place the chart.

2. On the tab, Insert , in the Illustrations group, click the Diagram button.

3. In the dialog box Insert Chart , select the chart and click OK .

   Office Excel 2007 opens in a split window and displays the sample data in a worksheet.

   Figure 1. Sample data on Excel sheet

4. In Excel, replace the sample data by clicking a cell in the worksheet and entering the data you want.

   You can also replace the examples of axis labels in column A and legend label in line 1 .

   Note: When the sheet is refreshed, the chart in PowerPoint 2007 is automatically refreshed with the new data.

5. When you have finished entering data in Excel, select File , item Close from the menu.

Insert an Excel chart or graph into a presentation and link it to data in Excel

Create a chart or graph in Office Excel 2007 and copy and paste it into your PowerPoint 2007 presentation.If the data in the linked Office Excel 2007 file has been refreshed, you can refresh the chart in PowerPoint using command Refresh Data .

For more information about inserting Excel charts and graphs into your PowerPoint presentation, see Copy an Excel chart into another Office program.

Note: If you want to automatically update the data in a chart or graph, save the Excel file before inserting the chart or graph.

1. In Excel, select the chart by clicking its border, and then on the Home tab , in the Clipboard group, click Cut .

2. In PowerPoint 2007, click a placeholder on the slide or note page where you want to place the chart.

3. On the Home tab , in the Clipboard group, click the arrow below the Paste button and select Paste .

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Create an organization chart, timeline, or add a chart from Excel

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Overview of Charts and Graphs

You can add a chart or data graph to your presentation in two ways:

• Create a chart or graph in a presentation. When you create a chart in PowerPoint 2007, the data is entered and edited using Office Excel 2007, but it is saved in the PowerPoint file.

• Inserts an Excel chart or graph into your presentation and links to data in an Office Excel 2007 file. When you copy a chart from a saved Office Excel 2007 file and paste it into your presentation, the chart data is linked to that Excel file.If you want to change the data in the chart, you need to edit the linked worksheet in Office Excel 2007 and then refresh the data in your PowerPoint presentation. The Excel sheet is a separate file and is not saved with the PowerPoint file.

Note: If you open a presentation that was created in an earlier version of PowerPoint and has a graph or chart that was created using Microsoft Graph, PowerPoint 2007 will retain its original appearance and allow you to continue editing the graph or chart.

Figure 2. PowerPoint chart based on sample data on Excel sheet

90,000 TOP-10 sexy parts of a man’s body that attract women

Over the course of time, nothing has changed, the only thing is that women of the 21st century prefer men who, in addition to strength, are able to satisfy their emotional needs.

Women, as a rule, always wanted to have a strong and gentle man. Strong, because such a man can give the best genetic inheritance to the offspring. So we will try to find out what exactly attracts the fairer sex in the body of men.

1. Athletic body shapes

In the list of attractiveness, the first place is occupied by men with a V-shaped body. A lean, athletic body is a kind of signal of health and strength, and that a man is able to provide for a family.Even in the modern world, when knightly power no longer plays a special role, a woman still considers a strong man as a more attractive and strong male.

2. Broad shoulders and chest, muscular and sinewy arms

The male body is generally wider at the shoulders and narrower at the hips, while the female body is narrow at the shoulders and wide at the hips. Broad shoulders are, according to women, a sign of masculinity. Men have a wide forearm that allows them to be more accurate gunners and hunters.

Hairy armpits have always been a sign of exceptional courage, as the hair in this area absorbs the scent of a man’s sweat, which is attractive and sexy to women.

3. Small elastic ass

Many women love tight male butts, and only a few understand the true power of the attractiveness of such an ass. The secret of an elastic ass is that during sex, men have to make strong frictions. For a man with a big booty, such movements are difficult, since they have to make efforts with their whole body.As a rule, a woman is not happy with such a thing. On the other hand, men with small and firm ass may be more successful in this matter.

4. Hair

Approximately 50% of women love men with hair, while the rest are indifferent to this. Many of the women interviewed admitted that they love bald men. As a rule, bald head appears for genetic reasons and a large amount of male hormone is also the cause of bald head. It has been proven that due to the large amount of hormones, bald men are much faster aroused and more sexually liberated than their “hairy” counterparts.And for this reason, baldness is perceived by women as a sign of supersexuality and attractiveness.

5. Sensual mouth and kind eyes

Men describe women’s lips using words such as wet, sexy, sweet, erotic and alluring. Women use words: sensual, loving and passionate. These words are not used here in the literal sense – women use them to describe a man’s attitude towards herself.

When it comes to eyes, women tend to like dark eyes more than light ones, as dark eyes add depth and masculinity to the look, while light eyes look childish and innocent.

6. Masculine nose and chin

Men with high levels of the male hormone testosterone have a more pronounced and stronger chin than men with low levels of male hormone. A strong jaw is perceived by women as a sign of rebelliousness. The miniature jaw is associated with women with tenderness and spinelessness.

7. Narrow hips and muscular legs

Strong and muscular legs are longer than other primates and narrow hips allow the male to run faster.

8. Flat tummy

Earlier, when food was scarce, a big belly was the privilege of only wealthy people. Today, when there are already few problems in order to get food, a large belly indicates carelessness to one’s appearance and appearance and health.

9. Large genital

Males have the largest genital organ of any known primate. For thousands of years, it was believed that a large sexual organ shows how a man is a skillful lover, but this is more connected with the human psyche than with its physiological characteristics.In fact, the truth is simple: a man with a 7-centimeter penis is able to deliver much more pleasure to a woman than with an 18-centimeter penis.

10. Light unshaven

Light unshaven is an indicator of masculinity and maturity.

90,000 What parts of the body men and women look at were studied by American psychologists

The stereotype that men, when they first look at a woman, tend to study in detail the attractive parts of their interlocutor, is confirmed by American psychologists.However, it turned out that women behave in the same way, that is, after a short period of time they direct their gaze to the rounded shapes of a new acquaintance. Researchers are convinced that such “objectifying behavior” is harmful, but now there is evidence to study this problem.

Women, just like men, are interested in the female body as much as in the face. This is the conclusion reached by researchers Sarah Gervais and Michael Dodd from the University of Lincoln (Nebraska, USA). Their work was published in the scientific journal Sex Roles .

In order to study where both sexes are looking, psychologists conducted an experiment: they showed 65 participants (men and women) 30 photographs of 10 women of student age, equipping the subjects with an apparatus that monitors eye movements.

The most common behavior was:

, the participant in the experiment ran his eyes through the entire photo, and then began to study in detail one or another sexually attractive part of the female figure (especially the chest).

“Of course, men and women behave differently when looking at women, but they both spent the same time on the same parts of the body; We explain this behavior of women by a social factor, namely the desire to compare oneself with another woman, ”explains Gervais.

The role of the figure should not be underestimated at all, the researchers say. So, even in a situation where the subject was asked to pay more attention to the personality of the woman in the photograph (this manipulation is used to make people look more at the face),

in men caused more positive emotions in women with rounded shapes.

It is worth noting that jokes about where men look and what they pay attention to have recently entered popular culture. For example, women’s T-shirts with inscriptions on the chest: “Your eyes are here” enjoy some success. The trend was set by the famous American tennis player Serena Williams:

the first racket of the world came to one of her press conferences in a T-shirt with the inscription on the chest: “Are you looking at my titles?” (a hard-to-translate play on words, the point is that people pay attention to her big breasts, not victories).

Nevertheless, research data are important in a broader context than empirical confirmation of a stereotype. The fact is that, according to psychologists, with the described view of a woman, her “objectification” occurs, that is, she is treated as an object.

According to experts from the University of Nebraska, such a view of a woman lowers her performance, leads her to depression and makes it more likely to be sexually harassed.

“But when we confirm and understand how a person concentrates on the body, involuntarily objectifying who he is looking at, it becomes easier for us to understand how to reduce the negative impact of this objectification,” said Michael Dodd.

At the same time, the researchers talk about “cognitive control” as a way of less traumatic visual behavior.