What are the most common types of skin rashes. How can you identify different rash symptoms. Which topical treatments are most effective for various skin rashes. What are the causes and triggers of common skin conditions like eczema and granuloma annulare. How can you prevent rash flare-ups and manage symptoms at home.

Understanding Skin Rashes: Causes, Types, and Characteristics

Skin rashes are abnormal changes in skin color or texture, typically resulting from inflammation. They can manifest in various forms, each with distinct characteristics and underlying causes. Identifying the specific type of rash is crucial for determining the most appropriate treatment approach.

Common causes of skin rashes include:

• Allergic reactions
• Infections (bacterial, viral, or fungal)
• Autoimmune conditions
• Environmental factors
• Stress
• Genetic predisposition

While some rashes may resolve on their own, others require medical intervention. Understanding the nature of different rashes can help in seeking timely and effective treatment.

Eczema: A Comprehensive Overview of Atopic Dermatitis

Eczema, particularly atopic dermatitis, is a prevalent skin condition characterized by inflammation, redness, and itching. It affects both children and adults, often running in families with a history of allergies.

Causes and Triggers of Eczema

The exact cause of atopic eczema remains unknown, but several factors contribute to its development and exacerbation:

• Genetic predisposition
• Immune system dysfunction
• Environmental allergens
• Skin barrier defects

Common triggers that can lead to eczema flare-ups include:

• Stress
• Irritants in skincare products or fabrics
• Allergens such as pollen or pet dander
• Climate changes (extreme heat or cold)
• Hormonal fluctuations

Recognizing Eczema Symptoms

Eczema symptoms can vary between individuals and may change over time. Key indicators include:

• Intense itching
• Redness and inflammation
• Dry, scaly, or crusted skin
• Small, fluid-filled blisters
• Thickened, leathery skin texture (in chronic cases)

In adults, eczema commonly affects the hands, elbows, and flexural areas like the inner elbows and back of the knees. Children often experience symptoms on the face, neck, scalp, and in skin folds.

Diagnosing and Treating Eczema

Diagnosing eczema involves a thorough examination of the skin and a review of the patient’s medical history. In some cases, additional tests may be conducted to rule out other skin conditions or infections.

Treatment options for eczema include:

1. Moisturizers: Fragrance-free products containing ceramides, glycerin, or mineral oil
2. Topical corticosteroids: Over-the-counter or prescription-strength creams to reduce inflammation
3. Topical immunomodulators (TIMs): Medications like Elidel and Protopic for mild to moderate cases
4. Systemic treatments: Oral corticosteroids or injectable medications like dupilumab (Dupixent) for severe cases
5. Phototherapy: Controlled exposure to ultraviolet light
6. Antibiotics: To treat secondary skin infections
7. Antihistamines: To help control itching

Granuloma Annulare: Understanding This Unique Skin Condition

Granuloma annulare is a chronic skin disorder characterized by circular rashes with reddish bumps (papules). This condition primarily affects children and young adults, with a slightly higher prevalence in females.

Key Features of Granuloma Annulare

• Appearance: One or more rings of small, firm bumps
• Common locations: Backs of forearms, hands, or feet
• Symptoms: Mild itching may occur
• Cause: Unknown etiology
• Duration: Often resolves spontaneously

Can granuloma annulare be treated effectively? While this condition often resolves on its own, dermatologists may prescribe topical or injectable corticosteroids to manage symptoms and accelerate healing in persistent cases.

Lichen Planus: Exploring This Inflammatory Skin Disorder

Lichen planus is an inflammatory condition that can affect the skin, mucous membranes, and nails. It is characterized by distinctive purple, itchy, flat-topped bumps.

Understanding Lichen Planus

• Appearance: Shiny, flat-topped, purple bumps
• Common locations: Wrists, lower back, ankles, and inside the mouth
• Symptoms: Intense itching, burning sensation
• Cause: Believed to be an autoimmune disorder
• Duration: Can persist for months to years

How is lichen planus managed? Treatment typically involves topical corticosteroids, antihistamines for itching, and in some cases, oral medications or light therapy. Managing stress and avoiding irritants can also help control symptoms.

Pityriasis Rosea: A Self-Limiting Skin Condition

Pityriasis rosea is a common skin rash that typically begins with a single, large pink patch (herald patch) followed by smaller scaled patches on the body.

Key Aspects of Pityriasis Rosea

• Appearance: Oval, salmon-colored patches with fine scaling
• Common locations: Trunk, upper arms, and thighs
• Symptoms: Mild itching, sometimes preceded by flu-like symptoms
• Cause: Possibly viral, but exact etiology unknown
• Duration: Usually resolves within 6-8 weeks without treatment

Are there effective treatments for pityriasis rosea? While the condition is self-limiting, symptomatic relief can be achieved through topical corticosteroids, antihistamines, and moisturizers. In severe cases, phototherapy may be recommended.

Topical Treatments for Rashes: A Comprehensive Guide

Topical treatments play a crucial role in managing various skin rashes. The choice of treatment depends on the specific type of rash, its severity, and the underlying cause.

Common Topical Treatments for Rashes

1. Corticosteroids: Reduce inflammation and itching
2. Moisturizers: Help repair skin barrier and alleviate dryness
3. Calcineurin inhibitors: Manage eczema and other inflammatory skin conditions
4. Antifungal creams: Treat fungal infections like ringworm
5. Antibiotic ointments: Address bacterial skin infections
6. Antihistamine creams: Provide relief from itching
7. Vitamin D analogs: Used in treating psoriasis

Which factors should be considered when choosing a topical treatment for rashes? The specific diagnosis, affected area, patient age, and potential side effects all play a role in selecting the most appropriate topical therapy.

Prevention and Management Strategies for Skin Rashes

While not all rashes can be prevented, there are several strategies to reduce the risk of flare-ups and manage symptoms effectively:

• Identify and avoid triggers (e.g., allergens, irritants)
• Maintain good skin hygiene
• Use gentle, fragrance-free skincare products
• Keep skin moisturized
• Manage stress through relaxation techniques
• Avoid extreme temperature changes
• Wear breathable, non-irritating fabrics
• Follow a balanced diet and stay hydrated

How can you create an effective skincare routine for rash-prone skin? Focus on gentle cleansing, regular moisturizing, and incorporating prescribed treatments as directed by a healthcare professional.

When to Seek Medical Attention for Skin Rashes

While many rashes can be managed at home, certain situations warrant medical evaluation:

• Rash accompanied by fever or other systemic symptoms
• Rapidly spreading or severe rash
• Signs of infection (increased redness, warmth, pus)
• Rash that doesn’t improve with over-the-counter treatments
• Rash affecting a large portion of the body
• Painful or blistering rash
• Rash in sensitive areas (face, genitals)

What information should you provide to your healthcare provider about your rash? Be prepared to discuss the rash’s onset, duration, associated symptoms, potential triggers, and any treatments you’ve already tried.

Understanding the various types of skin rashes and their appropriate treatments is essential for effective management. By recognizing symptoms, identifying triggers, and implementing proper care strategies, individuals can minimize the impact of rashes on their daily lives. Remember that persistent or severe rashes should always be evaluated by a healthcare professional to ensure appropriate diagnosis and treatment.

Types, Symptoms, Treatments, & More

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

• What Are Rashes?
• Eczema
• Granuloma Annulare
• Lichen Planus
• Pityriasis Rosea

Rashes are abnormal changes in skin color or texture. They usually result from skin inflammation, which can have many causes.

There are many types of rashes, including eczema, granuloma annulare, lichen planus, and pityriasis rosea.

Eczema is a general term that describes several different conditions in which skin is inflamed, red, scaly, and itchy. Eczema is a common skin condition, and atopic dermatitis (also called atopic eczema) is one of the most common forms of eczema.

Eczema can affect adults or children. The condition isn’t contagious. View a slideshow to get an overview on eczema.

Causes

We don’t know for sure what causes atopic eczema, but the condition often affects people with a family history of allergies. If you have eczema, you may also have hay fever and/or asthma, or have family members with those conditions.

Some things can trigger a flare-up of eczema or make eczema worse, but they don’t cause the condition. Eczema triggers include stress, skin irritants (including soaps, skin care products, or some fabrics), allergens, and climate/environment. Learn more about the link between allergies and eczema.

Symptoms

The way eczema looks can vary from person to person. In adults, eczema most often affects the hands, elbows, and “bending” areas like the inside of the elbows and back of your knees. In young children, eczema often shows up inside the elbows, behind the knees, and on the face, back of the neck, and scalp. Signs and symptoms of atopic eczema include:

• Itchiness
• Skin redness
• Dry, scaly, or crusted skin that might become thick and leathery from long-term scratching
• Formation of small, fluid-filled blisters that might ooze when scratched
• Infection of the areas of broken skin

Diagnosis

To diagnose atopic eczema, the doctor will check your skin and ask about your symptoms. They might test an area of scaly or crusty skin to rule out other skin diseases or infections. Find out more on the symptoms and diagnosis of eczema.

Treatment

You can treat eczema with moisturizers that are fragrance-free and contain ingredients such as ceramides, glycerin, and mineral oil. Medications include over-the-counter creams and ointments containing the steroid hydrocortisone (for example, Cortizone-10, Cort-Aid, Dermarest Eczema, Neosporin Eczema). These products may help control the itching, swelling, and redness linked to eczema. Prescription-strength cortisone creams, as well as cortisone pills and shots, are also used for more severe cases.

For people with mild to moderate eczema, topical immunomodulators (TIMs) can help. TIMS — including brand name products Elidel and Protopic — work by changing the body’s immune response to allergens, preventing flare-ups.

Crisaborole (Eucrisa) is an ointment for mild to moderate psoriasis in those 2 and older.

Dupilumab (Dupixent) is an injectable monoclonal antibody used in patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. It clears the itch quickly in most patients.

Other drugs that might be used for people with eczema include antibiotics (to treat infected skin) and antihistamines (to help control itching).

Phototherapy is another treatment that helps some people with eczema. The ultraviolet light waves found in sunlight have been shown to help treat certain skin disorders, including eczema. Phototherapy uses ultraviolet light — either ultraviolet A (UVA) or ultraviolet B (UVB) — from special lamps to treat people with severe eczema.

Risks linked to phototherapy include burning (usually resembling a mild sunburn), dry skin, itchy skin, freckling, and possible premature aging of the skin. Your health care professionals will work with you to lessen any risks. Get more details about treatments for eczema.

Prevention

There’s no way to prevent atopic eczema, but you can do things to improve your symptoms:

• Reduce stress
• Avoid scratchy materials (for example, wool) and chemicals such as harsh soaps, detergents, and solvents
• Moisturize often
• Avoid sudden changes in temperature or humidity
• Avoid situations that cause sweating and overheating

Read more on how to prevent eczema flare-ups.

 

Granuloma annulare is a chronic skin condition that consists of a circular-shaped rash with reddish bumps (papules). People who have granuloma annulare usually notice one or more rings of small, firm bumps over the backs of their forearms, hands, or feet. The rash may be mildly itchy. It’s not known what causes it and they usually go away on their own, although steroids may be prescribed. The condition most often affects children and young adults and is slightly more common in girls.

Granuloma annulare is a chronic skin condition that consists of a circular-shaped rash with reddish bumps (papules).

Most often, the condition affects children and young adults. Granuloma annulare is slightly more common in girls and usually is seen in people who are otherwise healthy.

Causes

We don’t know what causes granuloma annulare.

Symptoms

People who have granuloma annulare usually notice one or more rings of small, firm bumps over the backs of their forearms, hands, or feet. The rash may be mildly itchy.

Diagnosis

Your doctor can diagnose you. They might use a skin biopsy to confirm you have granuloma annulare.

Treatment

Treatment of granuloma annulare usually isn’t necessary, except for cosmetic reasons. In some cases, steroid creams or ointments can help the bumps disappear. Some doctors may decide to freeze the lesions with liquid nitrogen or to inject steroids directly into the rings of bumps. Ultraviolet light therapy or oral drugs can be used in serious cases.

See a photo of what granuloma annulare looks like.

Lichen planus is a common skin disorder that produces shiny, flat-topped bumps. They often have an angular shape and a reddish-purplish color. Lichen planus can show up anywhere on the skin but often affects the insides of your wrists and ankles, your lower legs, your back, and your neck. Some people have lichen planus inside their mouth, genital region, scalp, and nails. Thick collections of bumps may occur, especially on the shins.

Lichen planus most often affects adults ages 30-70. It isn’t common in very young or elderly people.

Causes

Doctors think lichen planus is an autoimmune condition, meaning your body’s immune system attacks its own tissues. But they don’t know what causes it. Sometimes lichen planus results from a triggering agent such as hepatitis B or hepatitis C. Doctors call that a lichenoid reaction.

If you’re allergic to medications to treat high blood pressure, heart disease, and arthritis, you could get a lichen planus-type rash. Lichen planus isn’t contagious.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of the condition include shiny, flat-topped bumps that are purple or a reddish-purplish color. It’s often itchy. When it shows up on your scalp, lichen planus can lead to hair loss. Lichen planus of the nails can cause brittle or split nails.

Diagnosis

A doctor can diagnose lichen planus by the way it looks or with the use of a skin biopsy. For this procedure, they’ll take a small bit of skin from the affected area and send it to a lab for testing.

Treatment

Lichen planus can’t be cured, but you can treat the symptoms with anti-itch products like antihistamines (for example, Benadryl, or diphenhydramine). If lichen planus affects only a small part of the body, you can apply medicated cream to the affected area. In more severe cases, doctors might prescribe steroid shots, prednisone, or other drugs that suppress your immune system. They might also give you retinoids or try light therapy.

View a slideshow to see photos of lichen planus and other skin reactions.

Pityriasis rosea is a common skin rash that usually is mild. The condition often begins with a large, scaly, pink patch of skin on your chest or back. Next you’ll notice one patch of pink skin quickly followed by more. Your skin will be itchy and red or inflamed. The number and sizes of spots can vary.

Causes

We don’t know what causes pityriasis rosea. But there is evidence that suggests pityriasis rosea may be caused by a virus because the rash resembles certain viral illnesses. The rash doesn’t seem to spread from person to person.

Symptoms

The primary symptom of pityriasis rosea is that large, scaly, pink area of skin followed by more itchy, inflamed, or reddened patches. Pityriasis rosea affects the back, neck, chest, abdomen, upper arms, and legs. The rash can differ from person to person.

Diagnosis

A doctor can usually diagnose pityriasis rosea by looking at it. They may do blood tests, scrape your skin, or do a skin biopsy to rule out other skin conditions.

Treatment

If your case is mild, you may not need treatment. Even more serious cases sometimes go away on their own. Oral antihistamines (like diphenhydramine), over-the-counter medications you rub on your skin, and prescription steroids can help soothe the itch.

Sores may heal faster with some exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light. Don’t get too much sun, though. In most cases, pityriasis rosea goes away within 6-12 weeks.

See a photo of what pityriasis rosea looks like.

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Types, Symptoms, Treatments, & More

Written by WebMD Editorial Contributors

• What Are Rashes?
• Eczema
• Granuloma Annulare
• Lichen Planus
• Pityriasis Rosea

Rashes are abnormal changes in skin color or texture. They usually result from skin inflammation, which can have many causes.

There are many types of rashes, including eczema, granuloma annulare, lichen planus, and pityriasis rosea.

Eczema is a general term that describes several different conditions in which skin is inflamed, red, scaly, and itchy. Eczema is a common skin condition, and atopic dermatitis (also called atopic eczema) is one of the most common forms of eczema.

Eczema can affect adults or children. The condition isn’t contagious. View a slideshow to get an overview on eczema.

Causes

We don’t know for sure what causes atopic eczema, but the condition often affects people with a family history of allergies. If you have eczema, you may also have hay fever and/or asthma, or have family members with those conditions.

Some things can trigger a flare-up of eczema or make eczema worse, but they don’t cause the condition. Eczema triggers include stress, skin irritants (including soaps, skin care products, or some fabrics), allergens, and climate/environment. Learn more about the link between allergies and eczema.

Symptoms

The way eczema looks can vary from person to person. In adults, eczema most often affects the hands, elbows, and “bending” areas like the inside of the elbows and back of your knees. In young children, eczema often shows up inside the elbows, behind the knees, and on the face, back of the neck, and scalp. Signs and symptoms of atopic eczema include:

• Itchiness
• Skin redness
• Dry, scaly, or crusted skin that might become thick and leathery from long-term scratching
• Formation of small, fluid-filled blisters that might ooze when scratched
• Infection of the areas of broken skin

Diagnosis

To diagnose atopic eczema, the doctor will check your skin and ask about your symptoms. They might test an area of scaly or crusty skin to rule out other skin diseases or infections. Find out more on the symptoms and diagnosis of eczema.

Treatment

You can treat eczema with moisturizers that are fragrance-free and contain ingredients such as ceramides, glycerin, and mineral oil. Medications include over-the-counter creams and ointments containing the steroid hydrocortisone (for example, Cortizone-10, Cort-Aid, Dermarest Eczema, Neosporin Eczema). These products may help control the itching, swelling, and redness linked to eczema. Prescription-strength cortisone creams, as well as cortisone pills and shots, are also used for more severe cases.

For people with mild to moderate eczema, topical immunomodulators (TIMs) can help. TIMS — including brand name products Elidel and Protopic — work by changing the body’s immune response to allergens, preventing flare-ups.

Crisaborole (Eucrisa) is an ointment for mild to moderate psoriasis in those 2 and older.

Dupilumab (Dupixent) is an injectable monoclonal antibody used in patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. It clears the itch quickly in most patients.

Other drugs that might be used for people with eczema include antibiotics (to treat infected skin) and antihistamines (to help control itching).

Phototherapy is another treatment that helps some people with eczema. The ultraviolet light waves found in sunlight have been shown to help treat certain skin disorders, including eczema. Phototherapy uses ultraviolet light — either ultraviolet A (UVA) or ultraviolet B (UVB) — from special lamps to treat people with severe eczema.

Risks linked to phototherapy include burning (usually resembling a mild sunburn), dry skin, itchy skin, freckling, and possible premature aging of the skin. Your health care professionals will work with you to lessen any risks. Get more details about treatments for eczema.

Prevention

There’s no way to prevent atopic eczema, but you can do things to improve your symptoms:

• Reduce stress
• Avoid scratchy materials (for example, wool) and chemicals such as harsh soaps, detergents, and solvents
• Moisturize often
• Avoid sudden changes in temperature or humidity
• Avoid situations that cause sweating and overheating

Read more on how to prevent eczema flare-ups.

 

Granuloma annulare is a chronic skin condition that consists of a circular-shaped rash with reddish bumps (papules). People who have granuloma annulare usually notice one or more rings of small, firm bumps over the backs of their forearms, hands, or feet. The rash may be mildly itchy. It’s not known what causes it and they usually go away on their own, although steroids may be prescribed. The condition most often affects children and young adults and is slightly more common in girls.

Granuloma annulare is a chronic skin condition that consists of a circular-shaped rash with reddish bumps (papules).

Most often, the condition affects children and young adults. Granuloma annulare is slightly more common in girls and usually is seen in people who are otherwise healthy.

Causes

We don’t know what causes granuloma annulare.

Symptoms

People who have granuloma annulare usually notice one or more rings of small, firm bumps over the backs of their forearms, hands, or feet. The rash may be mildly itchy.

Diagnosis

Your doctor can diagnose you. They might use a skin biopsy to confirm you have granuloma annulare.

Treatment

Treatment of granuloma annulare usually isn’t necessary, except for cosmetic reasons. In some cases, steroid creams or ointments can help the bumps disappear. Some doctors may decide to freeze the lesions with liquid nitrogen or to inject steroids directly into the rings of bumps. Ultraviolet light therapy or oral drugs can be used in serious cases.

See a photo of what granuloma annulare looks like.

Lichen planus is a common skin disorder that produces shiny, flat-topped bumps. They often have an angular shape and a reddish-purplish color. Lichen planus can show up anywhere on the skin but often affects the insides of your wrists and ankles, your lower legs, your back, and your neck. Some people have lichen planus inside their mouth, genital region, scalp, and nails. Thick collections of bumps may occur, especially on the shins.

Lichen planus most often affects adults ages 30-70. It isn’t common in very young or elderly people.

Causes

Doctors think lichen planus is an autoimmune condition, meaning your body’s immune system attacks its own tissues. But they don’t know what causes it. Sometimes lichen planus results from a triggering agent such as hepatitis B or hepatitis C. Doctors call that a lichenoid reaction.

If you’re allergic to medications to treat high blood pressure, heart disease, and arthritis, you could get a lichen planus-type rash. Lichen planus isn’t contagious.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of the condition include shiny, flat-topped bumps that are purple or a reddish-purplish color. It’s often itchy. When it shows up on your scalp, lichen planus can lead to hair loss. Lichen planus of the nails can cause brittle or split nails.

Diagnosis

A doctor can diagnose lichen planus by the way it looks or with the use of a skin biopsy. For this procedure, they’ll take a small bit of skin from the affected area and send it to a lab for testing.

Treatment

Lichen planus can’t be cured, but you can treat the symptoms with anti-itch products like antihistamines (for example, Benadryl, or diphenhydramine). If lichen planus affects only a small part of the body, you can apply medicated cream to the affected area. In more severe cases, doctors might prescribe steroid shots, prednisone, or other drugs that suppress your immune system. They might also give you retinoids or try light therapy.

View a slideshow to see photos of lichen planus and other skin reactions.

Pityriasis rosea is a common skin rash that usually is mild. The condition often begins with a large, scaly, pink patch of skin on your chest or back. Next you’ll notice one patch of pink skin quickly followed by more. Your skin will be itchy and red or inflamed. The number and sizes of spots can vary.

Causes

We don’t know what causes pityriasis rosea. But there is evidence that suggests pityriasis rosea may be caused by a virus because the rash resembles certain viral illnesses. The rash doesn’t seem to spread from person to person.

Symptoms

The primary symptom of pityriasis rosea is that large, scaly, pink area of skin followed by more itchy, inflamed, or reddened patches. Pityriasis rosea affects the back, neck, chest, abdomen, upper arms, and legs. The rash can differ from person to person.

Diagnosis

A doctor can usually diagnose pityriasis rosea by looking at it. They may do blood tests, scrape your skin, or do a skin biopsy to rule out other skin conditions.

Treatment

If your case is mild, you may not need treatment. Even more serious cases sometimes go away on their own. Oral antihistamines (like diphenhydramine), over-the-counter medications you rub on your skin, and prescription steroids can help soothe the itch.

Sores may heal faster with some exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light. Don’t get too much sun, though. In most cases, pityriasis rosea goes away within 6-12 weeks.

See a photo of what pityriasis rosea looks like.

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Treatment of skin rashes | Dobromed

Causes of a rash on the body: symptoms of infectious diseases

Very often, red rashes on the body are caused by a reaction to external stimuli. But along with a deterioration in well-being, a skin reaction becomes a sure sign of problems inside the body. So, before looking for a cure for a rash, it is necessary to determine the disease-cause. The disease is caused by the measles virus, which is transmitted from a sick person to a healthy person by airborne droplets. The disease usually affects children. The onset of measles is characterized by lethargy, headaches, cough, fever (up to 39degrees), runny nose, pain in the eyes and photophobia. On the 3-4th day, pinkish-white uneven spots on the palate and a red rash on the skin appear on the palate. The rashes are usually very small, red, forming large spots. Initially, they are localized on the patient’s face, his neck, in the area behind the ears, but later they move to the rest of the surface of the body. Measles treatment is based on taking antihistamines, drinking plenty of water, and bed rest.

Rubella

Rubella is a viral disease that mainly affects children, but it also occurs in adults. Rubella is especially dangerous for pregnant women: in this case, there is a high probability of infection of the fetus, which can lead to congenital malformations of the child.

Rubella appears as a small rash on the body and sometimes on the face. In addition, irritation can affect the mucous membranes. The rash usually does not itch, and after the rash disappears, there is usually no peeling, no scarring or other marks. A characteristic rise in temperature to 37-37.5 degrees and an increase in lymph nodes only confirm the presence of rubella.

Chickenpox

Chickenpox or, as it is popularly called, chickenpox, belongs to the category of acute viral diseases. Infection occurs by airborne droplets when communicating with a sick person. With chickenpox, a pinkish spot first appears, which after a few hours turns into a small bubble. Then the bubble bursts, and the opened wound is covered with a crust. Among other things, such an itchy rash provokes the appearance of scratching and further irritation. Combing a rash on the skin with chickenpox is strictly prohibited. The fact is that rashes affect the upper layers of the skin, so after the papules dry, most often there are no traces left on their dream. If the papule is combed, damage to the germ layer of the epidermis will occur, which leads to scarring. The treatment of chickenpox consists in taking antiviral drugs (in moderate and severe forms), antihistamines, as well as local treatment of rashes with brilliant green or fucorcin. If the patient has a fever, he is given antipyretic drugs (if the patient is a child, aspirin is prohibited).

Herpes

A viral disease that manifests itself in the form of blistering rashes on the skin, mucous membranes and genitals. The herpes virus is dormant in almost all people: about 90% of the world’s population is infected with this virus. The impetus for its activation is usually hypothermia, stressful situations, lack of sleep, unbalanced nutrition, injuries, overwork, viral diseases and a general decrease in the level of the body’s defenses. In this case, the herpes virus “wakes up.” A rash on the skin with herpes is represented by one or more adjacent bubble chambers filled with a cloudy light liquid. Along the edges of the bubbles is a reddened area of ​​the skin with dried crusts. Places of rashes with herpes hurt and itch, body temperature may rise (especially with a large localization of the rash).

Facial rash

Herpes skin rash is treated with antivirals, analgesics and topical ointments. However, to date, alas, there is no such method of therapy that completely removes the herpes virus from the human body. All currently available methods of treatment are aimed at reducing the frequency of exacerbations of the disease, their intensity and duration.

Herpes zoster

This skin disease is characterized by the appearance of primary symptoms resembling the onset of a flu-like condition: body aches, headache, chills, slight fever. A few days later, a more serious increase in temperature occurs – usually up to 38-39degrees. Around the same time, characteristic rashes appear on the patient’s skin – reddish-pink spots, which then transform into small-diameter bubbles with a cavity filled with a clear liquid. Skin rashes are painful to the touch, the patient feels burning and itching. The location of the rash is usually limited to the face and chest area, however, in some cases, the disease also affects the arms or legs. The course of shingles resembles the course of chicken pox: the rash dries out over time, crusts appear on the skin in its place, which are very itchy and itchy. This similarity is due to the cause of both diseases: both chickenpox and shingles are caused by the same herpes zoster virus. Skin rashes with shingles are treated with antihistamines, analgesics and antivirals. Local therapy is also prescribed: skin rashes are recommended to be treated with an antiseptic (brilliant green, fukortsin) – this helps prevent the possibility of an infection bubble getting inside and further suppuration. Vaccination is currently used to prevent relapse.

Pyoderma

The disease is provoked by staphylococci and streptococci. These pyogenic bacteria penetrate deep into the skin due to a violation of its integrity, the action of temperature factors, as well as malfunctions in the circulatory system, central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract and metabolic processes. Long-term therapy with the use of corticosteroid and cytostatic drugs can also provoke the onset of the disease. Usually, with pyoderma, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands are affected, both at the surface and at the deep level. Initially, a bubble (conflict) is formed on the affected area of ​​the skin, filled with a cloudy liquid, which then dries up and forms a serous-purulent crust. After healing, the crust disappears, scars usually do not form. Treatment of pyoderma is based on the use of antibiotics inside, as well as local therapy – treatment of skin rashes with antiseptics, antimicrobial ointments. It will be useful to use physiotherapy – UHF therapy for deep forms of pyoderma, as well as the internal use of vitamin complexes.

Folliculitis

Inflammation of the hair follicle is caused by bacteria and fungi. Pathogens enter small wounds and microcracks on the skin that appear from friction with clothes, in cases of insufficient personal hygiene, with increased sweating, metabolic disorders. The onset of the disease is characterized by the appearance of a small red spot on the skin around the hair, which then turns into an abscess. After the abscess opens, a crust appears on the skin. If untreated, further development of the disease is possible with the formation of a boil, carbuncle. For the treatment of this disease, local procedures are usually performed – treatment of the inflamed element with antimicrobial ointment or antiseptics. In severe cases, systemic use of antibiotics and antifungal drugs.

Non-infectious rashes

Atopic dermatitis (allergy)

Allergy is often manifested by a red rash on the skin, including in unusual places – on the palms, scalp, toes. If you do not think about how to treat an allergic skin rash, atopic dermatitis can develop into other forms of allergic diseases (allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma). In this case, the first remedy for a rash is to identify and remove the source of the allergy. In addition, antihistamines, anti-inflammatory creams, ointments are prescribed.

Skin rash associated with contact dermatitis

It develops when the skin comes into direct contact with an irritant. KD manifests itself in the form of a rash and itching on the body at the points of contact with an aggressive substance. When treating such a rash on the body, special care is needed for the affected areas of the skin: elimination of the cause of contact dermatitis, protection against infections, hygiene, restoration of the skin.

Eczema

Eczema is a non-contagious skin disease that appears as a result of external stimuli (chemical, mechanical or thermal) or internal disorders (malfunctions of the endocrine, nervous system, gastrointestinal tract). With eczema, a small reddish-pink rash covers the skin. Rashes are represented by seropapules and microvesicles – small vesicles that quickly open and weeping erosions appear in their place. After some time, weeping begins to dry out, which is why crusts form on the skin. For the treatment of eczema, corticosteroid ointments, vitamin complexes, sedatives, and antipruritics are usually used.

Rosacea on the face

The scientific name for rosacea is rosacea. A distinctive feature of the disease is the appearance of a skin rash on the face, represented by reddened bumps. The skin under the rashes usually thickens, the vessels become more visible. Most often, the skin of the nose and cheeks is affected, and the rash can also spread to the forehead and chin. In addition to rashes with rosacea, eye damage often appears, expressed by redness of the proteins, lacrimation, dryness and pain. diseases, chronic stress, infection, malnutrition, alcohol abuse. You can treat a skin rash with rosacea with antibiotics, sedatives, vitamin complexes, as well as local remedies – creams and gels. If the skin rash is accompanied by inflammation, corticosteroid ointments may be prescribed.

Urticaria

The main distinguishing feature of urticaria is extensive edematous pink blisters on the skin, resembling traces from contact with nettle leaves. The rash is very itchy and itchy. The cause of the appearance of skin rashes is usually the reaction of the immune system to a particular allergen. For the treatment of urticaria, antihistamines, corticosteroids, and sedatives are usually prescribed.

Rash on the face

The most unpleasant in terms of aesthetics is the rash on the face: due to the fact that this part of the body is almost always in sight, it is very difficult to hide the rash – this causes the patient a lot of inconvenience. The cause of a rash on the skin of the face may be an incorrectly selected cosmetic product, therapy with the use of corticosteroid drugs, poor personal hygiene, prolonged exposure to direct sunlight, hormonal surges, uncontrolled intake of antibiotics, stress, an unbalanced diet, as well as some allergic reactions and infectious diseases. .

Rash on the hands

Rash on the skin of the hands can be caused by contact or atopic dermatitis, exudative erythema, fungal infection, lupus erythematosus, syphilis, poor personal hygiene, excessive sweating of the palms.

Rashes on the legs

The appearance of rashes on the skin of the legs may be the first symptom of infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, allergic reactions to insect bites, the use of a new food or cosmetic product.

Rash on the neck

Rash on the skin of the neck (especially on the scalp at the back of the head or behind the ears) may be caused by poor hygiene, infection in the hair follicles, increased sweating, rubbing of the collar of the clothes against the skin, allergic reactions (in in particular – on wearing jewelry), hormonal changes in the body.

How to treat a rash with medication?

Of course, the first thing to do when such irritation appears on the skin is to determine its cause. Then – start treating the underlying disease, because a skin rash is just a symptom. Usually, the treatment of an allergic rash on the body, arms, legs, face and neck is based on the use of antihistamines, corticosteroid or non-hormonal ointments and creams, sedatives (if the rash itches and itchy), treatment of skin rashes with brilliant green or fukortsin, dieting. Dermovate, Lokoid and Advantan can be mentioned as effective corticosteroid drugs. From non-hormonal agents, Bepanten, Desitin, Gistan, Glutamol are usually prescribed.

How to treat a rash with traditional medicine?

There are many prescriptions available to help treat skin rashes. However, keep in mind that folk methods for treating rashes cannot be used as independent and basic ones: in any case, it is impossible to cure a skin rash with “grandmother’s” methods alone. In addition, before starting alternative therapy, you should definitely consult a doctor. For skin rashes, it is useful to make lotions from black tea. Compresses from sage, chamomile or string are also effective. To prepare each of these products, you need to pour one teaspoon of dry raw materials with a glass of boiling water and let it brew for two hours. After that, it is recommended to strain the infusion and make gauze compresses and lotions on the site of the rash. If the skin rash on the body is represented by a large area, it is much more convenient to do not compresses, but baths with the addition of chamomile and string. The infusion is prepared as follows: you need to take 5 tablespoons of dry plants, pour three liters of boiling water, leave for two hours and add the resulting remedy to a warm bath. pour 100 ml of purified or boiled water, stir to dissolve the mumiyo. Smear the rash with the resulting solution. Freshly squeezed carrot juice is very useful in the treatment of skin rashes. It is recommended to drink it twice a day before meals, one glass each.

Care products to restore healthy looking skin

Rashes cannot be treated with skin care products alone. However, when the healing process begins, it is necessary to provide the skin with sufficient hydration and nutrition. You can do this with the help of La Cree. La Cree Revitalizing Cream is an effective cream for allergic rashes, which also helps in the treatment of other types of skin rashes. This tool has a regenerating, soothing and anti-inflammatory effect. The rash cream contains a number of natural additives – walnut extract, succession, violets and licorice, avocado oil, bisabolol, panthenol. These components soothe and soften the skin, promote the healing of scratches and cracks that occur during itching, and have an antimicrobial effect. Panthenol has a regenerating and cleansing effect, strengthening the natural barrier of the epidermis.

Opinion of specialists

The conducted clinical study proves the high efficiency, safety and tolerability of La Cree products for daily skin care of a child with mild and moderate atopic dermatitis and during remission, accompanied by a decrease in the quality of life of patients. As a result of therapy, a decrease in the activity of the inflammatory process, a decrease in dryness, itching and flaking was noted.0005

• reduces itching and irritation;
• relieves skin redness;
• moisturizes and cares for the skin.

According to the results of clinical trials, product packaging contains information that the creams are recommended by the St. Petersburg branch of the Union of Pediatricians of Russia.

Contact dermatitis – causes, symptoms, methods of diagnosis and treatment

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The Hadassah clinic uses complex treatment regimens for contact dermatitis in adults, which are aimed at eliminating symptoms, finding and eliminating provoking factors of the disease. The combination of medical and physiotherapeutic effects allows you to quickly save the patient from the problem and prevent its recurrence.

Contact dermatitis (simple irritant, irritant, artificial dermatitis) is an inflammatory skin disease that occurs in response to contact with irritants. Its features: pathological manifestations directly at the site of exposure to the damaging agent and spontaneous improvement in the condition of the skin after the cessation of the influence of the irritant. Symptoms of contact dermatitis occur in at least 10% of patients who come with complaints to a dermatologist.

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Gryazeva
Natalia Vladimirovna

Dermatovenereologist, cosmetologist, Ph. D.

Work experience: 11 years

Cost of admission: from 9000 ₽

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Dzimtseishvili
Lala Dazmirovna

Dermatologist, cosmetologist

Work experience: 6 years

Admission fee: from 6000 ₽

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Zhukova
Daria Grigoryevna

Allergist-immunologist, Ph.D.

Work experience: 14 years

Cost of admission: from 9000 ₽

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Zaitseva
Galina Valerievna

Allergist-immunologist

Work experience: 10 years

Cost of admission: from 6500 ₽

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Maiorov
Roman Yurievich

Dermatovenereologist, podologist

Work experience: 3 years

Cost of admission: from 6500 ₽

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Stolyarova
Irina Evgenievna

Dermatologist, cosmetologist

Work experience: 24 years

Admission fee: from 6500 ₽

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Surkichyn
Sergey Ivanovich

Dermatovenereologist, cosmetologist, Ph. D.

Work experience: 17 years

Cost of admission: from 9000 ₽

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Benefits of treatment at the Hadassah clinic

The latest treatment standards

When choosing therapy, doctors are guided by current international recommendations and protocols, actively apply the experience of colleagues from other countries.

Comprehensive diagnostics

Thanks to its own laboratory and premium equipment for instrumental diagnostics, the Hadassah Clinic provides all types of examinations in the shortest possible time in one place.

Personal approach

Dermatologists select a treatment program individually, taking into account predisposing factors and the general health of a particular patient.

Multidisciplinarity

Doctors of all specialties work in the clinic, which allows timely diagnosis and detection of concomitant processes that can provoke or aggravate the course of dermatoses.

Patient care

We provide a friendly, attentive and comfortable atmosphere to relieve the patient of unnecessary stress when visiting the clinic and to maintain a positive attitude, which is important for successful treatment.

Quality medicines

Cooperation with leading pharmaceutical companies allows us to use certified and effective drugs for therapy without supply problems.

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Symptoms of contact dermatitis

The disease is more often recorded in women. Statistics indicate single episodes in more than 20% of women during their lifetime. This is due to constant contact with cleaning products when cleaning the house and washing dishes, regular use of cosmetics.

It is worth seeking medical help if skin lesions on the hands do not resolve on their own within a few days after exposure to a damaging agent, or when there is prolonged occupational contact with a harmful substance.

What contact dermatitis looks like depends on its clinical course: the inflammatory process can occur in acute, subacute and chronic forms.

Acute dermatosis is characterized by:

• bright erythema in the form of distinct red spots located in the areas of contact with the irritating agent;
• pruritus;
• various elements of the rash: nodules, vesicles, areas of weeping, less often scales, crusts;
• pain and burning sensation on affected skin.

Subacute and chronic forms of simple contact dermatitis are accompanied by proliferation of the stratum corneum of the epidermis (hyperkeratosis), areas of lichenification (pathological thickening of the skin), necrosis of certain areas of the dermis with the formation of difficult-to-heal ulcers and wounds.

The skin lesion develops gradually, at first not attracting the attention of the patient, and is characterized by episodes of improvement (at the time of cessation of contact with the damaging substance) and repeated deterioration of the condition. Sometimes, with subacute irritant dermatitis, an increase in local temperature is observed: the patient notes the sensation of “hot hands”.

Causes of development

The disease occurs when the skin interacts with irritants. The causes of contact dermatitis are chemical compounds (acids, alkalis), physical factors (high and low temperatures, pressure and friction), as well as ionizing radiation. The trigger is also mechanical damage from prolonged friction and tissue compression.

All of the above causes can act aggressively, causing an acute process, or gradually, in small doses, as a result of which a chronic disease develops.

Skin lesions are much more likely to occur in people with risk factors:

• prolonged contact with a pathological agent at home or at work;
• the presence of microtraumas and abrasions on the skin that is in contact with the irritant;
• chronic dermatological diseases.

Unlike allergic contact dermatitis, the irritant does not sensitize the body or activate immune mechanisms. The cause of the disease is those agents that cause skin reactions in all people, and not just in a small number of predisposed individuals.

Diagnostic methods

Despite the relatively favorable course and the absence of life-threatening consequences, contact dermatitis is a serious disease that requires a mandatory visit to a dermatologist. An important role in the diagnosis is played by a detailed history taking: a specialist needs to know about the working conditions and daily life of a person in order to suggest the etiological factors of dermatosis. To cure contact dermatitis, complete information about the state of health and differentiation of the disease with other dermatoses that have a similar clinical picture will be required. For this purpose appoint:

Dermoscopy

examination of the surface of skin elements under multiple magnification;

Examination of affected skin scrapings

for fungal, bacterial or viral infection;

Histological analysis of biopsy specimens

to assess the degree of morphological changes in the epidermis and dermis.

Since the treatment of allergic contact dermatitis differs from the treatment of the artificial form of the disease, the doctor must conduct blood tests and allergy tests to rule out the immune nature of the symptoms. Determination of individual allergens is necessary to limit the patient’s contact with them and avoid systemic reactions in the future.

Artifical dermatitis treatment

Therapy is carried out under the guidance of a dermatologist. In uncomplicated forms of the disease, the doctor is limited to the use of topical agents that stop subjective sensations and contribute to the regression of skin manifestations. The standard treatment program includes the following drugs:

• ointments for contact dermatitis, which contain cooling and anti-inflammatory components, relieve itching and burning in the affected areas of the body;
• antiseptics for treatment of foci of weeping and prevention of secondary infection;
• drying pastes for the elimination of weeping formed after the opening of large blisters;
• emollients, softening and healing creams for daily skin care during the healing phase;
• agents with topical corticosteroids for chronic dermatosis, profuse desquamation and lichenification.

It is unacceptable to purchase and use solutions and ointments for the treatment of contact dermatitis on your own. All appointments should be made by a doctor after an examination, a final diagnosis.

Complicated forms of the disease, accompanied by suppuration and tissue necrosis, are treated in a hospital with the addition of detoxification agents, systemic hormonal drugs. To prevent infectious complications, antibiotic therapy, antifungal therapy are carried out.

Treatment and prevention of contact dermatitis in the Hadassah clinic

The modern approach to treatment used by the specialists of the Hadassah clinic involves a comprehensive diagnosis and determination of the exact causes of dermatitis. Advanced allergological tests are carried out, which examine the reaction of the skin to a large number of agents that can potentially provoke the disease.

Doctors prefer to treat contact dermatitis in a complex way, using all available methods of therapy and recovery (including physiotherapy programs). This allows you to accelerate the result of treatment, significantly strengthen the protective barrier of the skin and prevent the recurrence of symptoms.

For disease prevention it is recommended:

• wear protective clothing and gloves when working in hazardous industries;
• strictly observe safety precautions when in contact with physical and chemical agents;
• for home use, choose gentle household chemicals and, if possible, use them with rubber gloves;
• purchase only certified skin care and decorative cosmetics, never use products that have expired.

If a potentially irritating substance comes into contact with the skin, immediately wash it off with plenty of water and observe the skin condition. If redness and itching are absent, there is no cause for concern. Otherwise, you should consult a dermatologist.

If contact dermatitis is suspected, immediately contact the Hadassah clinic doctors to undergo a full diagnosis and get the right treatment regimen that will quickly relieve unpleasant symptoms.

Text checked by an expert doctor

Gryazeva
Natalia Vladimirovna

Dermatovenereologist, cosmetologist, Ph.D.

Work experience: 11 years

Published: 07/14/2023

Updated: 05/12/2021

The information presented on the website is for reference only and cannot serve as a basis for making a diagnosis or prescribing treatment. Internal consultation of the expert is necessary.

SOURCES

• Dolnikova O. A., Letyaeva O. I., Prozorova Yu. P. Contact dermatitis under conditions of COVID-19 // South Ural medical journal. – 2021. – No. 1. – S. 42-52.
• Yablonsky K. E. Diagnosis and prevention of contact dermatitis //Science and education: problems and innovations. – 2021. – S. 135-137.
• Osmonaliev M. K. et al. Clinical indications for the management of patients with allergic contact dermatitis // Science, new technologies and innovations in Kyrgyzstan. – 2019. – No. 1. – S. 62-66.
• Patel K, Nixon R. Irritant Contact Dermatitis—a Review. Curr Dermatol Rep. 2022;11(2):41-51. doi: 10.1007/s13671-021-00351-4. Epub 2022 Apr 7. PMID: 35433115; PMCID: PMC8989112.
• Martin SF, Rustemeyer T, Thyssen JP. Recent advances in understanding and managing contact dermatitis. F1000Res. 2018 Jun 20;7:F1000 Faculty Rev-810. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.13499.1. PMID: 29983912; PMCID: PMC6013761.
• Murphy PB, Atwater AR, Mueller M. Allergic Contact Dermatitis. [Updated 2022 Sep 19]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-.
• Statescu L, Branisteanu D, Dobre C, Solovastru LG, Vasilca A, Petrescu Z, Azoicai D. Contact dermatitis – epidemiological study. Maedica (Bucur). 2011 Oct;6(4):277-81. PMID: 22879841; PMCID: PMC3391944.
• Novak-Bilić G, Vučić M, Japundžić I, Meštrović-Štefekov J, Stanić-Duktaj S, Lugović-Mihić L. Irritant and allergic contact dermatitis—skin lesion characteristics. Acta Clin Croat. 2018 Dec;57(4):713-720. doi: 10.20471/acc.2018.57.04.13. PMID: 31168208; PMCID: PMC6544100.

Prices for dermatology services

Dermatology

Primary appointment (examination, consultation) with a dermatovenereologist	6 500 ₽ 904 05
Repeated appointment (examination, consultation) with a dermatovenereologist	5,500 ₽
Preventive reception (examination, consultation) of a dermatovenerologist	2 500 ₽

Appointment (examination, consultation) with a dermatovenereologist, PhD, primary	9,000 ₽
Appointment (examination, consultation) with a dermatovenereologist, PhD, repeated	7 5 00

9 0404 Repeated remote consultation with a dermatovenereologist

Primary remote consultation with a dermatovenereologist	6 500 ₽
5,500 ₽
Remote consultation with a dermatovenereologist, c. m. .n., primary	9 000 ₽
Remote consultation of a dermatovenereologist, PhD, repeated	7 500 ₽

9 0004

Remote consultation of a dermatovenereologist of the Israeli clinic Hadassah Medical Zlotogorsky Avraham	71 500 ₽
Appointment (examination, consultation) of the leading dermatovenereologist, professor, Israeli clinic Hadassah Medical Gershko Klila	44 000 ₽
Reception (examination, consultation) of the leading allergist, professor, head of the Department of Internal Medicine of the Israeli clinic Hadassah Medical Gershko Alon	44 000 ₽
nerologist, founder and director of the clinic of dermatological surgery of the medical center named after Chaim Sheba (Tel Hashomer) Baruch Kaplan	55,000 ₽
Remote consultation of a dermatovenereologist, deputy head of the department of dermatology at the Chaim Sheba Medical Center (Tel Hashomer) Baum Sharon	76 000 ₽

90 404 51 000 ₽

9 0404 7 200 ₽

Taking a sample of biological material from lesions of the oral organs	1 400 ₽ 9040 5
Diathermocoagulation (electro-) of vascular neoplasms (telangiectasias, hemangiomas), 1-10 elements	7 300 ₽
Cryosurgery of molluscs, warts, etc. (1 degree of complexity)	2 900 ₽
Cryosurgery of mollusks, warts, etc. (2 degree of difficulty)	14 300 ₽
Cryosurgery for mollusks, warts, etc. (3rd degree of complexity)	28 600 ₽
Cryosurgery of molluscs, warts, etc. (4 degree of complexity)	51 000 ₽
Cryosurgery of molluscs, warts, etc. (5 degree of complexity)	72 000 ₽
Field photothermolysis of the zone of the upper and lower eyelids	21 500 ₽
Field photothermolysis of the face	51,000 ₽
Fractional photothermolysis of the neck area	51,000 ₽
Fractional photothermolysis of the décolleté area
Fractional photothermolysis of the face and neck area	72 000 ₽
Fractional photothermolysis of the face, neck and décolleté area	86,000 RUB
Taking urethral, ​​vaginal or anal swabs	1,400 RUB
Taking urethral, ​​vaginal or anal scrapings	1 400 ₽
Taking the nail plate for analysis	1 400 ₽
Taking hair for analysis for pathogenic flora for analysis of pathogenic flora	1 400 ₽
Skin biopsy (punch biopsy)	11 500 ₽
Curettage of skin neoplasms on the face, neck and head	23 700 ₽
Curettage of tumors on the trunk	19 400 ₽
Curettage of neoplasms on the extremities	17 200 ₽
Biorevitalization of soft tissues of the face – bioreparant, 1 ml.	25 800 ₽
Introduction of biorevitalizant-bioreparant, 2 ml.	42 000 ₽
Lipolytic mesotherapy	7 200 ₽
Intralesional administration of a therapeutic agent	11 600 ₽
Administration of the drug into keloid and hypertrophic scars
Laser treatment of scars from 1 to 3 cm in size (linear)	10 100 ₽
Laser treatment of scars 5 x 5 cm	21 500 ₽
Laser treatment of scars 10 x 1 0 cm	36 000 ₽
Botulinum toxin injection (without drug cost), 30 minutes	4 52 000 ₽
Treatment of psoriasis with a genetically engineered drug Efleira (3 procedures)	148 000 ₽
Dermatological peeling (chemical peeling of the face)	11 000 ₽
Hardware treatment of nail plates s	4 000 ₽
Hardware treatment of feet without cracks	4 000 ₽
Hardware treatment of feet with cracks	4 000
Removal of an ingrown nail using the podological method	4,000 ₽
Removal of callus	4000 ₽
Installation of corrective systems (titanium thread) medicines	8 000 ₽

Radio wave removal of skin neoplasms, 1 element (1 degree of complexity)	3 700 ₽
Radio wave removal of skin neoplasms, 1 element (2nd degree of complexity)	7 300 ₽
Radio wave removal of skin neoplasms, 1 element (3rd degree of complexity)	2
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