Endocrine System – Definition, Function & Parts

Definition

The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that produce hormones and secrete them into the circulatory system. Endocrine glands work without ducts for carrying secretions towards target organs. Instead, hormones can act as chemical messengers for a large number of cells and tissues simultaneously.

Overview

The endocrine system consists of many glands, which work by secreting hormones into the bloodstream to be carried to a target cell. Endocrine system hormones work even if the target cells are distant from the endocrine glands. Through these actions, the endocrine system regulates nearly every metabolic activity of the body to produce an integrated response. The endocrine system can release hormones to induce the stress response, regulate the heartbeat or blood pressure, and generally directs how your cells grow and develop.

Endocrine glands are usually heavily vascularized, containing a dense network of blood vessels. Cells within these organs produce and contain hormones in intracellular granules or vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane in response to the appropriate signal. This action releases the hormones into the extracellular space, or into the bloodstream. The endocrine system can be activated by many different inputs, allowing for responses to many different internal and external stimuli.

Endocrine System Function

The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, integrates the signals from different parts of the body and the environment. In addition, the endocrine system produces effector molecules in the form of hormones that can elicit an appropriate response from the body in order to maintain homeostasis. The nervous system produces immediate effects. The endocrine system is designed to be relatively slow to initiate, but it has a prolonged effect.

As an example, the long-term secretion of growth hormone in the body influences the development of bones and muscles to increase height and also induces the growth of every internal organ. This happens over the course of many years. Hormones like cortisol, produced during times of stress, can change appetite, and metabolic pathways in skeletal and smooth muscle for hours or weeks.

The endocrine system is involved in every process of the human body. Starting from the motility of the digestive system, to the absorption and metabolism of glucose and other minerals, hormones can affect a variety of organs in different ways. Some hormones affect the retention of calcium in bones or their usage to power muscle contraction. In addition, they are involved in the development and maturation of the adaptive immune system, and the reproductive system. Crucially, they can affect overall growth and metabolism, changing the way every cell assimilates and utilizes key nutrients.

Endocrine System Parts

The endocrine system consists of a number of organs – some of which have hormone production as their primary function, while others play important roles in other organ systems as well. These include the pituitary and pineal glands in the brain, the thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck, the thymus in the thoracic region, the adrenals and pancreas in the abdominal region and the gonads in the reproductive system.

Endocrine System Diagram

Endocrine System in the Brain

Starting from the brain, the hypothalamus, pituitary and pineal glands are involved in the regulation of other endocrine organs and in the regulation of circadian rhythms, changing the metabolic state of the body. The pineal gland is located near the center of the brain, in a region called the epithalamus. The pituitary gland is seen very near the hypothalamus and has some direct interactions and feedback loops with the organ for the production of hormones.

Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary can regulate a number of endocrine organs, particularly the gonads, and the adrenals. In fact, the hypothalamus can be considered as the nodal point that integrates two major pathways for regulation – the nervous and endocrine systems. It is made of a collection of neurons that collect information from the body through the nervous system and integrate it into a response through the endocrine system, especially the anterior and posterior parts of the pituitary gland.

Endocrine System within the Neck

The neck contains the thyroid and parathyroid glands. The thyroid gland consists of two symmetric lobes connected by a narrow strip of tissue called the isthmus glandularis, forming a butterfly-like structure. Each lobe is about 5cm in height, and the isthmus is approximately 1.25 cm in length. The gland is situated in the front of the neck, behind the thyroid cartilage. Each lobe of the thyroid gland is usually positioned in front of a pair of parathyroid glands. Each of the four parathyroid glands is approximately 6x3x1 mm in size, and weighs between 30 and 35 gms. There can be some variation in the number of parathyroid glands among individuals, with some people having more than 2 pairs of glands.

Endocrine System within the Body

The thymus is an endocrine organ situated behind the sternum (also known as the breastbone), between the two lungs. It is pinkish-gray in color and consists of two lobes. Its endocrine function complements its role in the immune system, being used for the development and maturation of thymus-derived lymphocytes (T-cells). This organ is unusual because of its activity peaks during childhood. After adolescence, it slowly shrinks and gets replaced by fat. At its largest, before the onset of puberty, it can weigh nearly 30 gms.

The adrenals are placed above the kidney and therefore also known as suprarenal glands. They are yellowish in color and surrounded by a capsule of fat. They can be seen just under the diaphragm and are connected to that muscular organ by a layer of connective tissue. The adrenal glands consist of an outer medulla and an inner cortex, having distinct secretions and roles within the body.

The pancreas plays a dual role, being an integral and important part of both the digestive and endocrine systems. The glandular organ located close to the C-shaped bend of the duodenum, and it can be seen behind the stomach. It contains cells with an exocrine function that produce digestive enzymes as well as endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans that produce insulin and glucagon. The hormones play a role in the metabolism and storage of blood glucose and thus the two different functions of the organ are integrated at a certain level.

The gonads also have important endocrine functions that influence the proper development of reproductive organs, the onset of puberty, and maintenance of fertility. Other organs such as the heart, kidney, and liver also act as secondary endocrine organs, secreting hormones like erythropoietin that can affect red blood cell production.

Endocrine System Structure

Unlike some body systems, the endocrine system is widely distributed within the body. Further, unlike some systems, the parts of the endocrine system can function independently from one another to regulate and coordinate the body. For example, the pineal gland in the brain responds to light received in the eyes, which causes it to release the hormone melatonin. This action can be completely separate from the actions of the reproductive endocrine glands, which are responding to a different set of signals to enable a different outcome.

However, some glands like the thyroid and hypothalamus also control other glands and their functions. These glands can help to coordinate the overall actions of the system and the body as a whole. A release of hormones from these glands can create a cascade of effects from the release of a single hormone. This makes the endocrine system one of the most complexly structured body systems.

Diseases of the Endocrine System

Endocrine system diseases primarily arise from two causes – either a change in the level of hormone secreted by a gland, or a change in the sensitivity of the receptors in various cells of the body. Therefore, the body fails to respond in an appropriate manner to messenger signals. Among the most common endocrine diseases is diabetes, which hampers the metabolism of glucose. This has an enormous impact on the quality of life since adequate glucose is not only important for fueling the body, but it is also important in maintaining glucose at an appropriate level to discourages the growth of microorganisms or cancerous cells.

Imbalances of hormones from the reproductive system are also significant since they can influence fertility, mood, and wellbeing. Another important endocrine gland is the thyroid, with both high and low levels of secretion affecting a person’s capacity to function optimally, even affecting fertility in women. The thyroid also needs a crucial micronutrient, iodine, in order to produce its hormone. Dietary deficiency of this mineral can lead to an enlargement of the thyroid gland as the body tries to compensate for low levels of thyroid hormones.

Diabetes

Diabetes, or diabetes mellitus, refers to a metabolic disease where the blood consistently carries a high concentration of glucose. This is traced back to the lack of effective insulin hormone, produced by the pancreas, or a lack of functioning hormone receptors. Diabetes mellitus could either arise from a low level of insulin production from the pancreas or an insensitivity of insulin receptors among the cells of the body. Occasionally, pregnant women with no previous history of diabetes develop high blood sugar levels. This can threaten the health of the mother and fetus, as well as increase all the risks associated with childbirth.

Insulin is an anabolic hormone that encourages the transport of glucose from the blood into muscle cells or adipose tissue. Here, it can be stored as long chains of glycogen, or be converted into fat. Concurrently it also inhibits the process of glucose synthesis within cells, by interrupting gluconeogenesis, as well as the breakdown of glycogen. A spike in blood sugar levels causes the release of insulin. Its release protects cells from the long-term damage of excess glucose, while also allowing the precious nutrient to be stored and utilized later. Glucagon, another hormone secreted by the pancreas (alpha cells), acts in an antagonistic manner to insulin and is secreted when blood sugar levels drop.

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is a condition where the body has an insufficient supply of thyroid hormones – thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Both these hormones contain iodine and are derived from a single amino acid – tyrosine. Iodine deficiency is a common cause for hypothyroidism since the gland is unable to synthesize adequate amounts of hormone. This can arise due to damage to the cells of the thyroid gland through infection or inflammation, or medical interventions for excessive thyroid activity. It can also arise from a deficiency in the pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid. Alternatively, it could be due to defects in the receptors for the hormone. Thyroxine is the more common hormone in the blood and has a longer half-life than T3.

Hypogonadism

Hypogonadism refers to a spectrum of disorders where there is an insufficiency of sex hormones. These are usually secreted by the primary gonads (testes and ovaries) and affect the development, maturation, and functioning of sex organs and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. It can arise due to a low level of sex hormone production by the gonads itself, or the insensitivity of these organs to cues from the brain for hormone production. The first condition is called primary hypogonadism and the latter is called central hypogonadism.

Depending on the period of onset, hypogonadism can result in different characteristics. Hypogonadism during development can cause ambiguous genitalia. During puberty, it can affect the onset of menstruation, breast development and ovulation in females, delay the growth of the penis and testicles, and affect the development of secondary sexual characteristics. It can also impact self-esteem and confidence. In adulthood, hypogonadism leads to reduced sex drive, infertility, fatigue or even loss in bone and muscle mass.

Quiz

1. Which of these organs secretes glucagon?

A.Pancreas

B.Pituitary

C.Hypothalamus

D.Adrenal Glands

2. Which of these endocrine glands situated in the brain interacts closely with the hypothalamus?

A.Pineal

B.Thyroid

C.Pituitary

D.Thymus

3. Which of these endocrine disorders can specifically affect women during the course of pregnancy?

A.Hypogonadism

B.Diabetes

C.Thymus gland development

D.None of the Above

4. Which area of the body DOES NOT have an endocrine gland?

A.The brain

B.The neck

C.The gonads

D.None of the above.

5. What is the role of the pancreas within the endocrine system?

A.To produce digestive enzymes.

B.To produce hormones like insulin and glucagon.

C.Neither of these functions

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions – Anatomy & Physiology

The Endocrine System

OpenStaxCollege

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the organs with a secondary endocrine function, the hormone they produce, and its effects

In your study of anatomy and physiology, you have already encountered a few of the many organs of the body that have secondary endocrine functions. Here, you will learn about the hormone-producing activities of the heart, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, skeleton, adipose tissue, skin, and thymus.

When the body experiences an increase in blood volume or pressure, the cells of the heart’s atrial wall stretch. In response, specialized cells in the wall of the atria produce and secrete the peptide hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP signals the kidneys to reduce sodium reabsorption, thereby decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed from the urine filtrate and reducing blood volume. Other actions of ANP include the inhibition of renin secretion and the initiation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and vasodilation. Therefore, ANP aids in decreasing blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium levels.

The endocrine cells of the GI tract are located in the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine. Some of these hormones are secreted in response to eating a meal and aid in digestion. An example of a hormone secreted by the stomach cells is gastrin, a peptide hormone secreted in response to stomach distention that stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid. Secretin is a peptide hormone secreted by the small intestine as acidic chyme (partially digested food and fluid) moves from the stomach. It stimulates the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas, which buffers the acidic chyme, and inhibits the further secretion of hydrochloric acid by the stomach. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is another peptide hormone released from the small intestine. It promotes the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile from the gallbladder, both of which facilitate digestion. Other hormones produced by the intestinal cells aid in glucose metabolism, such as by stimulating the pancreatic beta cells to secrete insulin, reducing glucagon secretion from the alpha cells, or enhancing cellular sensitivity to insulin.

The kidneys participate in several complex endocrine pathways and produce certain hormones. A decline in blood flow to the kidneys stimulates them to release the enzyme renin, triggering the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS) system, and stimulating the reabsorption of sodium and water. The reabsorption increases blood flow and blood pressure. The kidneys also play a role in regulating blood calcium levels through the production of calcitriol from vitamin D₃, which is released in response to the secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). In addition, the kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low oxygen levels. EPO stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone marrow, thereby increasing oxygen delivery to tissues. You may have heard of EPO as a performance-enhancing drug (in a synthetic form).

Although bone has long been recognized as a target for hormones, only recently have researchers recognized that the skeleton itself produces at least two hormones. Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is produced by bone cells in response to increased blood levels of vitamin D₃ or phosphate. It triggers the kidneys to inhibit the formation of calcitriol from vitamin D₃ and to increase phosphorus excretion. Osteocalcin, produced by osteoblasts, stimulates the pancreatic beta cells to increase insulin production. It also acts on peripheral tissues to increase their sensitivity to insulin and their utilization of glucose.

Adipose tissue produces and secretes several hormones involved in lipid metabolism and storage. One important example is leptin, a protein manufactured by adipose cells that circulates in amounts directly proportional to levels of body fat. Leptin is released in response to food consumption and acts by binding to brain neurons involved in energy intake and expenditure. Binding of leptin produces a feeling of satiety after a meal, thereby reducing appetite. It also appears that the binding of leptin to brain receptors triggers the sympathetic nervous system to regulate bone metabolism, increasing deposition of cortical bone. Adiponectin—another hormone synthesized by adipose cells—appears to reduce cellular insulin resistance and to protect blood vessels from inflammation and atherosclerosis. Its levels are lower in people who are obese, and rise following weight loss.

The skin functions as an endocrine organ in the production of the inactive form of vitamin D₃, cholecalciferol. When cholesterol present in the epidermis is exposed to ultraviolet radiation, it is converted to cholecalciferol, which then enters the blood. In the liver, cholecalciferol is converted to an intermediate that travels to the kidneys and is further converted to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D₃. Vitamin D is important in a variety of physiological processes, including intestinal calcium absorption and immune system function. In some studies, low levels of vitamin D have been associated with increased risks of cancer, severe asthma, and multiple sclerosis. Vitamin D deficiency in children causes rickets, and in adults, osteomalacia—both of which are characterized by bone deterioration.

The thymus is an organ of the immune system that is larger and more active during infancy and early childhood, and begins to atrophy as we age. Its endocrine function is the production of a group of hormones called thymosins that contribute to the development and differentiation of T lymphocytes, which are immune cells. Although the role of thymosins is not yet well understood, it is clear that they contribute to the immune response. Thymosins have been found in tissues other than the thymus and have a wide variety of functions, so the thymosins cannot be strictly categorized as thymic hormones.

The liver is responsible for secreting at least four important hormones or hormone precursors: insulin-like growth factor (somatomedin), angiotensinogen, thrombopoetin, and hepcidin. Insulin-like growth factor-1 is the immediate stimulus for growth in the body, especially of the bones. Angiotensinogen is the precursor to angiotensin, mentioned earlier, which increases blood pressure. Thrombopoetin stimulates the production of the blood’s platelets. Hepcidins block the release of iron from cells in the body, helping to regulate iron homeostasis in our body fluids. The major hormones of these other organs are summarized in [link].

Some organs have a secondary endocrine function. For example, the walls of the atria of the heart produce the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), the gastrointestinal tract produces the hormones gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which aid in digestion, and the kidneys produce erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the formation of red blood cells. Even bone, adipose tissue, and the skin have secondary endocrine functions.

The walls of the atria produce which hormone?

1. cholecystokinin
2. atrial natriuretic peptide
3. renin
4. calcitriol

B

The end result of the RAAS is to ________.

1. reduce blood volume
2. increase blood glucose
3. reduce blood pressure
4. increase blood pressure

D

Athletes may take synthetic EPO to boost their ________.

1. blood calcium levels
2. secretion of growth hormone
3. blood oxygen levels
4. muscle mass

C

Hormones produced by the thymus play a role in the ________.

1. development of T cells
2. preparation of the body for childbirth
3. regulation of appetite
4. release of hydrochloric acid in the stomach

A

Summarize the role of GI tract hormones following a meal.

The presence of food in the GI tract stimulates the release of hormones that aid in digestion. For example, gastrin is secreted in response to stomach distention and causes the release of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Secretin is secreted when acidic chyme enters the small intestine, and stimulates the release of pancreatic bicarbonate. In the presence of fat and protein in the duodenum, CCK stimulates the release of pancreatic digestive enzymes and bile from the gallbladder. Other GI tract hormones aid in glucose metabolism and other functions.

Compare and contrast the thymus gland in infancy and adulthood.

The thymus gland is important for the development and maturation of T cells. During infancy and early childhood, the thymus gland is large and very active, as the immune system is still developing. During adulthood, the thymus gland atrophies because the immune system is already developed.

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

peptide hormone produced by the walls of the atria in response to high blood pressure, blood volume, or blood sodium that reduces the reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidneys and promotes vasodilation

erythropoietin (EPO)

protein hormone secreted in response to low oxygen levels that triggers the bone marrow to produce red blood cells

leptin

protein hormone secreted by adipose tissues in response to food consumption that promotes satiety

thymosins

hormones produced and secreted by the thymus that play an important role in the development and differentiation of T cells

thymus

organ that is involved in the development and maturation of T-cells and is particularly active during infancy and childhood

What organs belong to the endocrine system? — Endocrin Clinic

Contents:
1. What are hormones responsible for in our body?
2. What are the main components of the endocrine system?

What are hormones responsible for in our body?

Recently, all the inhabitants of our planet (not only doctors) have been very active in studying hormones.
“Harmony in hormones” is practically the slogan of a healthy person. And it doesn’t make sense. What are hormones responsible for in our body? The endocrine system or hormonal system is responsible for the regulation of all biological processes in the body from conception to old age.
Hormones (in parallel with the immune and nervous systems) clearly affect:

• growth and development of the whole organism,
• reproductive system function affect our psycho-emotional state! Just one of many examples is the so-called adolescence! How many “defeats” adults have won in the fight against unbridled teenagers. And in this war, one of the leading commanders has hormonal changes in the child’s body.
  So what are those very invisible “soldiers” of our body that actively influence our lives? Hormones are, in fact, the “couriers” of our body, such carriers of health (with the proper functioning of all organs and systems). Once in the blood, they deliver chemicals to the cells of the whole body. Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands and are proteins, steroids or protein derivatives.
  In addition to the endocrine system, the organs of our body are also involved in the production of hormones.
  Such as:
  • brain,
  • liver
  • heart and others. Do not follow the regime of the day, stress, lack of age-appropriate physical activity – all this entails the body’s inability to correctly and most importantly, release the necessary hormones that are so necessary for our body in time.

    What are the main components of the endocrine system?

    1. The hypothalamus is that part of the brain that is, in a way, a bridge between the endocrine and nervous systems. Its main task is to instruct the pituitary gland to start or stop producing hormones.
    2. The pituitary gland is the emperor of our endocrine system. He gives a command what to do to other glands of the body. We list only a few main spheres of influence of the pituitary gland:
       • affects the growth of the body
       • babies will never be deprived of mother’s milk with the smooth functioning of the pituitary gland
       • estrogen – female hormones
       • testosterone – male hormones.
       • Pineal gland – produces melatonin, the lack of which we suffer from insomnia and, as a result, an unstable emotional state
       • Thyroid gland. Instability in its function contributes to disturbances in physical and mental development, in the functioning of the cardiovascular system and in metabolism. We should not forget that the thyroid gland is a repository for iodine (such an essential substance, and especially in our region).
    3. Parathyroid gland is a calcium and phosphorus regulator.
    4. Thymus is the main violin in the development of the child’s immune system.
    5. Adrenal glands – promotes the production of an amazing hormone under the pseudonym “fight or flight” – adrenaline. In any extreme situation, it gives the human body incredible power to make a decision to either run or fight. The adrenal glands also produce hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism, heart rate, oxygen consumption, blood flow and sexual function.
    6. Pancreas. This organ is part of our digestive system. But, oddly enough, the endocrine system too. In addition to its main function of producing digestive enzymes and breaking down food, the pancreas also produces hormones such as insulin and glucagon. Pancreatic control ensures that you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and cells. (an example is the “plague of the 21st century” – diabetes).
    7. Ovaries – produce the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. These hormones promote breast development during puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support pregnancy.
    8. Testicles . In men, testosterone is produced by the testicles. This helps them grow facial and body hair during puberty. It also causes the male sexual organ to grow in size and plays a role in the production of semen.

    Endocrine system – Medical Association “ONA”

    The endocrine system ensures the stable operation of the human body in a constantly changing environment, its protection from stress.

    The endocrine system includes the following main organs: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, mammary gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (testes in men), gallbladder and appendix. ES organs are glands that provide growth, physiological development, reproductive functions of a person, as well as the course of the most important processes of balancing the activity of the whole organism under continuously changing external influences. Management of all this work and control over the correctness of its implementation is carried out in the body by hormones, which are produced by the glands of the ES. Each hormone is responsible for its own organs and functions, but works in a delicate balance with hormones produced by other glands. Depending on the function being performed at the moment, a different balance of hormones is required. Its failure causes disruption of the corresponding systems, organs, the flow of necessary reactions, which leads to the appearance of abnormalities in the body, and then diseases. Therefore, regular monitoring of hormonal levels is the key to the timely detection of violations and their curability. Another feature of ES should be noted: the interconnection and interdependence of its glands is so great that a violation found in one of the organs almost automatically means the presence of problems in others – after all, there is a hormonal failure.

    Endocrine glands (EG) do not have excretory ducts, and the substances they secrete (hormones) enter directly into the blood and lymph. By sending hormones into the blood, EJs create a communication system and control the work of literally every cell in the body. Hormones provide its chemical balance, give the cells an indication of how to act, given their abilities and capabilities. The purpose of the EJ is to ensure the well-being of the whole organism, the balance in the work of internal organs, regardless of changes in the external environment, to protect the body from the destructive effects of stress.

    Hypothalamus. Regulates the temperature reaction, establishes the correct ratio between heat release and heat transfer, controls the pituitary gland.

    Pituitary gland. Manages the operation of the entire system. Incoming and outgoing messages are coordinated and make the ES work efficiently and harmoniously. The pituitary gland controls the body’s chemical balance by influencing most of the body’s chemical processes (for example, regulating water-salt and fat metabolism).

    There is a constant need for the body to adapt to external changes, and this is also part of the task of the pituitary gland. The human body grows, wears out, and the pituitary gland is engaged in ensuring growth and repair. In addition, it provides reproductive function.

    The pituitary gland performs its functions with the help of hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands. Those, in turn, secrete hormones that affect the pituitary gland itself and the nervous system. What happens in the body when the production of only one hormone is disrupted can be seen in the example of growth hormone. If it is produced more than the norm, a person becomes a victim of gigantism, if it is less than the norm, he remains a dwarf.

    The pituitary gland is called the conductor of the ES, and sometimes its “brain”.

    Thyroid. If the pituitary gland is the conductor of ES, then the thyroid gland (TG) is its metronome. It kind of sets the pace for all the cells of the body. The main function of the thyroid gland is to control the proper metabolism, the absorption of oxygen. It can speed up the metabolism if it increases the amount of hormones sent to the blood stream, or slow it down by reducing their amount. However, this does not happen, since its work is under the control of thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. And that, in turn, manages the thyroid hormone, which provides feedback to the pituitary gland. That is, between the pituitary gland and the thyroid gland, there is a self-regulating mechanism of balance and control, working in a certain cycle.

    Normal thyroid function promotes growth, puberty, childbearing, mental development, emotional balance, vitality.

    Adrenals. Their bark is actually a gland, also called adrenal. It produces adrenaline, which increases vascular tone and blood pressure. The adrenal cortex affects the performance of the body, its resistance to stress. Women’s adrenal glands also help the ovaries – they also produce sex hormones. Moreover, during menopause, when the ovaries stop their production.

    Pancreas. It produces insulin, which enhances the process of burning glycogen in muscles, which proceeds with the release of energy.

    Gallbladder. During stress, it releases bile, as a result of which the peristalsis of the small intestine increases, the rotting masses are quickly pushed into the large intestine, into the rectum. There is an accelerated release of toxins, thereby preventing their entry into the blood.

    Appendix. At the moment of stress, the release of the hormone occurs, as a result of which the peristalsis of the large intestine increases and the rotting masses are released through the rectum (often this process is called “bear disease”).

    Ovaries. In the broadest sense, the ovaries provide a woman with femininity. They perform this function with the help of two main hormones: estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone promotes fertility, while estrogen provides other signs of femininity, including the complex function of the menstrual cycle. And when the ovaries reduce its secretion, menopause occurs.

    Hormones. This is a Greek word meaning “I excite,” “I set into action. ” These are a kind of chemical messages, ordering the actions of certain organs. The hormone does not explain to the cells what kind of work they should do, but only determines how much and how quickly it should be done. Each hormone has its own controlled organs, but circulating through the body, it affects others, having a specific and general effect.

    The pituitary gland produces three main hormones: gonadotropic (stimulates the ovaries and sex glands) and mammotropic or prolactin (affects the mammary glands, promotes the formation of milk after the birth of a child) and thyrotropic.

    The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones. Inside the body there are constant chemical processes. With their help, food and oxygen are processed and transformed into living matter, heat and energy are consumed, unnecessary residues are thrown away, and what wears out is reconstructed. Various chemical processes take place during respiration, digestion, in the work of muscles, in the secretion of glands.