What is the endocrine system made up of. How do endocrine glands function. Which organs are part of the endocrine system. What are the main functions of the endocrine system. How do hormones affect the body.

The Fundamentals of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and mood.

What distinguishes endocrine cells from other secretory cells? Endocrine cells are specialized for hormone secretion and share several key characteristics:

• They secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid, which then diffuse into the bloodstream.
• They do not use ducts for secretion, unlike exocrine glands.
• They are typically arranged in cords or small clumps, closely associated with blood vessels.
• The blood vessels associated with endocrine glands have fenestrated endothelium, facilitating hormone diffusion into the bloodstream.

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

The endocrine system consists of several major glands and organs, each with specific functions:

Pituitary Gland

Often called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is divided into two main parts:

1. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis): Produces and secretes growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and several other important hormones.
2. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): Stores and releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. How does the thyroid gland store its hormones? Unlike most endocrine glands, the thyroid forms follicles where thyroglobulin is stored for later use.

Parathyroid Glands

These small glands, usually four in number, are located behind the thyroid gland. They produce parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium levels in the blood and bones.

Adrenal Glands

Located atop the kidneys, the adrenal glands consist of two distinct parts:

• Adrenal cortex: Produces steroid hormones, including cortisol and aldosterone.
• Adrenal medulla: Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Pancreas

While primarily known for its exocrine function in digestion, the pancreas also contains endocrine tissue called the islets of Langerhans. These islets produce insulin, glucagon, and other hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.

Unique Characteristics of Endocrine Tissues

Endocrine tissues are organized in distinct patterns based on their embryonic origins and functions:

Epithelial Tissue

Many endocrine glands, including the thyroid, parathyroid, anterior pituitary, adrenal cortex, pancreatic islets, and liver, are composed of epithelial tissue. What are the unique features of these epithelial-derived endocrine glands?

• They are organized into cords or clumps, with cells attached laterally to neighboring cells.
• Most lack apical/basal polarization of cytoplasm due to the absence of a lumenal surface for secretion.
• They are typically of ectodermal or endodermal origin, with the exception of the mesodermally-derived adrenal cortex.

Nervous Tissue

Some endocrine structures, such as the posterior pituitary, adrenal medulla, and pineal gland, are derived from nervous tissue. These structures originate from neuroectoderm or neural crest and maintain organization typical of nervous tissue, with secretion occurring from axon terminals.

The Role of Blood Vessels in Endocrine Function

Blood vessels play a crucial role in the endocrine system. How are they adapted to facilitate hormone secretion and distribution?

• Endocrine glands are highly vascularized, with a dense network of capillaries or sinusoids.
• The endothelium of these blood vessels is fenestrated, meaning it has small pores or “windows” that allow for easier passage of hormones into the bloodstream.
• This specialized vasculature ensures that hormones can quickly enter the circulation and reach their target tissues throughout the body.

Endocrine Cells in Non-Traditional Locations

While we often focus on the major endocrine glands, it’s important to note that endocrine cells can be found in various other tissues and organs throughout the body. Some examples include:

Gastrointestinal Tract

The digestive system contains numerous individual endocrine cells that secrete hormones such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin. These hormones help regulate digestion, appetite, and other gastrointestinal functions.

Liver

Although not traditionally considered an endocrine gland, the liver does have endocrine functions. It produces and secretes several important substances, including:

• Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)
• Angiotensinogen
• Thrombopoietin

Adipose Tissue

Fat cells, or adipocytes, secrete hormones such as leptin, which plays a role in regulating appetite and energy balance. This endocrine function of adipose tissue has gained increasing attention in recent years, particularly in relation to obesity and metabolic disorders.

Hormone Production and Secretion Mechanisms

The production and secretion of hormones by endocrine cells involve complex cellular processes. How do these cells manufacture and release their hormones?

1. Hormone synthesis: Depending on the type of hormone, it may be produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (proteins and peptides) or in specialized organelles like mitochondria (steroid hormones).
2. Processing and packaging: Many hormones undergo post-translational modifications and are packaged into secretory vesicles in the Golgi apparatus.
3. Storage: Some hormones are stored in secretory vesicles until a signal for release is received.
4. Secretion: Upon stimulation, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their contents into the interstitial fluid.
5. Diffusion: The released hormones diffuse into nearby blood vessels, entering the circulation to reach their target tissues.

Regulation of Endocrine Function

The endocrine system is tightly regulated to maintain homeostasis in the body. What are the main mechanisms for controlling hormone production and secretion?

Negative Feedback

This is the most common form of endocrine regulation. When hormone levels reach a certain threshold, they signal the producing gland to decrease or stop production. For example, high levels of thyroid hormones in the blood inhibit the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland.

Positive Feedback

Though less common, positive feedback loops do occur in the endocrine system. In these cases, the hormone stimulates its own production or the production of another hormone that enhances its effects. A classic example is the surge of oxytocin during childbirth, which stimulates uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin release.

Neural Control

The nervous system can directly influence hormone secretion in some endocrine glands. This is particularly evident in the adrenal medulla, where sympathetic nerve stimulation triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Hormonal Control

Some endocrine glands are controlled by hormones produced by other glands. The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is a prime example, where hypothalamic hormones regulate pituitary hormone secretion, which in turn controls other endocrine glands.

Endocrine System Disorders and Their Impact

Disorders of the endocrine system can have wide-ranging effects on the body due to the crucial role hormones play in regulating various physiological processes. What are some common endocrine disorders and their consequences?

Diabetes Mellitus

This disorder results from insufficient insulin production (Type 1) or insulin resistance (Type 2), leading to abnormal blood glucose regulation. Diabetes can cause numerous complications, including cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and nerve damage.

Thyroid Disorders

• Hypothyroidism: Underproduction of thyroid hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance.
• Hyperthyroidism: Overproduction of thyroid hormones, causing symptoms like weight loss, anxiety, and heat intolerance.

Adrenal Insufficiency

Also known as Addison’s disease, this condition occurs when the adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol and aldosterone. It can cause fatigue, weakness, and low blood pressure.

Growth Hormone Disorders

• Growth hormone deficiency: Can lead to short stature in children and various metabolic issues in adults.
• Acromegaly: Excess growth hormone production in adults, causing enlargement of bones and soft tissues.

Understanding these disorders highlights the importance of maintaining a balanced and properly functioning endocrine system for overall health and well-being.

Emerging Research and Future Directions in Endocrinology

The field of endocrinology continues to evolve, with new discoveries and technologies shaping our understanding of hormone function and endocrine disorders. What are some current areas of research and potential future developments in endocrinology?

Endocrine Disruptors

Researchers are increasingly studying the effects of environmental chemicals that can interfere with hormone function. These endocrine disruptors may play a role in various health issues, including reproductive problems, certain cancers, and metabolic disorders.

Personalized Medicine

Advances in genetic testing and molecular biology are paving the way for more personalized approaches to treating endocrine disorders. This could lead to more effective, tailored treatments based on an individual’s genetic profile and specific hormone imbalances.

Neuroendocrinology

The complex interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system are an active area of research. Understanding these connections could provide new insights into stress responses, circadian rhythms, and various neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Hormone Replacement Therapies

Ongoing research is focused on developing more effective and safer hormone replacement therapies for conditions such as menopause, andropause, and various endocrine deficiencies.

Artificial Endocrine Organs

Advances in bioengineering are bringing us closer to developing artificial endocrine organs, such as an artificial pancreas for diabetes management. These technologies could revolutionize the treatment of endocrine disorders.

As research in these areas progresses, our understanding of the endocrine system and our ability to treat endocrine disorders will continue to improve, potentially leading to better health outcomes for millions of people worldwide.

Histology at SIU

Histology at SIU

Histology
Study Guide
Endocrine System

Using this guide

Image index

Introduction to endocrine secretion. Continue on down this page for an overview of several endocrine glands.   Or click on links in this table for pages on each endocrine gland.
pituitary gland	thyroid parathyroid	adrenal
pancreatic islets	GI tract (individual endocrine cells)	Liver (Yes, the liver is an endocrine gland.)
testis	ovary	Pineal

Zoomified online slides of the endocrine system Link to LUMEN (Loyola University Medical Education Network), click on “Part 14:  Endocrine Glands”.

INTRODUCTION TO ENDOCRINE SECRETION

Many of the body’s cells secrete substances which influence other cells,
either locally or at some distance.  Cells which are conspicuously specialized
for this function are called endocrine cells.  (The suffix -crine
refers to secretion; the prefix endo- tells us that the secretory product
stays inside the body.)  Several additional cell types (e.g.,
adipocytes, which secrete the hormone leptin)
also may have endocrine function but are not traditionally listed with the endocrine organs.  Endocrine cells in the endocrine organs listed
above all share certain characteristics:

• Most obviously, endocrine cells are all specialized for secretion. 
  Their specific appearance depends on the nature of the secretory product and on
  the cellular machinery needed to manufacture and store that product.
   
• Secretory products of endocrine cells are secreted into interstitial fluid from
  whence they can diffuse into blood. 
  Therefore, endocrine secretion
  does not involve ducts but requires close proximity to blood vessels, usually
  either capillary networks or vascular sinusoids.
   
• Endocrine cells are commonly arranged into cords or small clumps, with
  each cell closely associated with adjacent vessels.
   
• To faciliate diffusion of hormones into blood, vessels associated with
  endocrine glands have fenestrated endothelium (from Latin fenestra,
  window).  Each endothelial cell has a shape like a slice of very
  holey Swiss cheese (cartoon illustration at right), rolled into a cylinder to make a segment of capillary. 

The various endocrine cells of the human body are organized in a few distinctive
patterns.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE forms the parenchyma of thyroid,
parathyroid, anterior
pituitary (adenohypophysis), adrenal cortex,
pancreatic islets, and liver.
 

The epithelial nature of these cells is reflected in
their organization into cords or clumps, with cells attached laterally
to neighboring cells as in surface epithelium.  But because
there is typically no lumenal surface for endocrine secretion, there is
no apical/basal polarization of cytoplasm.  (An exception is the
thyroid, where proper cuboidal epithelium does form follicles into whose
lumens thyroglobulin is secreted for storage.)

With the exception of adrenal cortex (which is mesodermally
derived), these glands are all of ectodermal or endodermal origin.  Remnants
of embryonic origin may occur in the form of displaced glandular tissue
or ducts, especially with the adenohypophysis or the thyroid.  

NERVOUS TISSUE, derived from neuroectoderm or neural crest, comprises the
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), adrenal
medulla, and pineal.  

Both neurohypophysis and pineal originate from the diencephalon
and have organization typical of nervous tissue.  Secretion is from
axon terminals.  Secretory cells (neurons) are supported by glial
cells.  

The adrenal medulla is essentially a sympathetic ganglion
originating from neural crest and innervated by preganglionic sympathetic
axons.  The adrenal medullary cells lack axons but are otherwise functionally
similar to sympathetic nerve cells.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE, derived from mesoderm, provides the organizational pattern for endocrine cells of testicular
Leydig cells and ovarian stromal cells.
 
OTHER:  Ovarian
granulosa and luteal cells defy easy tissue-type classification.

Finally, INDIVIDUAL CELLS may have significant endocrine function.  Examples
include the epithelial enteroendocrine cells
of the GI tract and the juxtaglomular cells (modified smooth muscle) of
the renal cortex.

Overview of Individual Endocrine Glands
(For additional detail, click on the name of the gland.)

The
pituitary gland (or hypophysis)
consists of two distinct parts, the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
and the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis).

The anterior pituitary appears glandular
(hence adenohypophysis), with clumps of epithelial cells with varying
staining properties.  Cells of several species each secrete one of
several hormones (e.g., GH, ACTH, FSH, LH, TSH, etc.)  Such secretion
from this “master gland” regulates most other endocrine glands
and is, in turn, regulated by factors secreted by hypothalamic neurons and
delivered to the anterior pituitary by the hypophyseal
portal vessels.  

The posterior pituitary consists of secretory
endings of axons from nerve cells (hence neurohypophysis) whose cell
bodies are located in the hypothalamus.  These secretory processes
of the posterior pituitary secrete oxytocin and ADH.

Pituitary adenomas may be “benign” (i.e.,
not malignant) but can nevertheless cause significant problems either from
excess hormone production or from mass effect (e.g., crowding the optic
chiasm).  For illustration, see WebPath.

For additional detail, click here:  pituitary gland.

---

The thyroid consists of characteristic follicles,
each with a large lumen surrounded by a simple cuboidal epithelium.  The
appearance (as well as evolutionary origin) is that of an exocrine gland which
has lost its outlet so that secretory product accumulates in the follicles.
 Follicular cells store thyroglobulin in the follicles for subsequent
use in production and endocrine secretion of T3 (thyroxin) and T4.  Parafollicular
cells (C cells) produce calcitonin.

• For some examples of thyroid pathology, see WebPath
  (thyroiditis, inflammation), WebPath
  (Grave’s disease, hyperthyroid), and WebPath
  (goiter), or Milikowski & Berman’s Color Atlas of Basic Histopathology,
  pp. 452-461.

For additional detail, click here:  thyroid.

---

The
parathyroid consists of several discrete
glands, each organized into tangled curvilinear cords of chief cells.  These
cells secrete parathyroid hormone, which works in opposition to calcitonin
(from thyroid C cells) to regulate blood calcium levels.  

For additional detail, click here:  parathyroid.

---

Pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans
(named after Paul Langerhans, b. 1847) are nests of endocrine cells
scattered within the pancreas.  Each islet consists of several cell types
which secrete insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic peptide.  The
cells are arranged into tangled cords.  

• Diabetes may result from
  immunological destruction of islet cells.  For images, see WebPath
  (diabetes I) and WebPath
  (diabetes II), or Milikowski & Berman’s Color Atlas of Basic Histopathology, p. 469.

For additional detail, click here:  pancreatic islets.

---

The adrenal consists of two distinct parts, an
outer cortex and an inner medulla.  

The cortex consists of cords of steroid-secreting
epithelial cells, separated by parallel sinusoids.  The cords are organized
into poorly defined zones.  From the outside inward, these zones secrete
mineral corticoids (e.g., aldosterone), glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol),
and androgenic steroids.

• For images of tumors leading to Cushing’s disease,
  see WebPath
  (gross) and WebPath
  (microscopic), or Milikowski & Berman’s Color Atlas of Basic Histopathology,
  p. 466.
• For gross images of adrenal hyperplasia (e.g., subsequent
  to Cushing’s disease or ectopic ACTH production) and also
  adrenal atrophy, see WebPath

The medulla consists of cells similar
to sympathetic neurons which secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine).

For additional detail, click here:  adrenal.

---

The
testis contains clusters of interstitial
Leydig cells which secrete testosterone.  

For additional detail, click here:  testis.

---

The
ovary includes steroid secreting cells of the
theca interna and of the corpus
luteum.  

For additional detail, click here:  ovary.

 

---

The pineal consists
of pinealocytes, neuron-like cells which secrete melatonin.  Calcium
accumulation (“brain sand”) in the pineal gland makes this structure a useful landmark in
x-rays.  For images of pineal, as well as more information, see
LUMEN
or Wikipedia.

Historical note:  According to Rene Decartes, it is through the pineal that
the soul controls the body.

---

For some additional detail on specific endocrine glands, click on a link in this table.
pituitary gland	thyroid parathyroid	adrenal
pancreatic islets	GI tract (individual endocrine cells)	Liver (Yes, the liver is an endocrine gland.)
testis	ovary	Pineal

Comments and questions: [email protected]

SIUC / School
of Medicine / Anatomy / David
King

https://histology.siu.edu/erg/enguide. htm
Last updated:  28 December 2022 / dgk

Endocine System in Children – Overview

Health and SafetySurgery and Hospital Care

Reviewed By
Robert A. Cusick, M.D.

January 19, 2022

​​The endocrine system is a complex system made up of glands that make hormones. Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers and play the key role in carrying instructions and information from cell to cell. This system influences almost every cell, organ a​nd function the body has and helps the body function properly.

What Does the Endocrine System Do?

The endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream, allowing the hormones to travel to cells all over the body. These hormones help control growth, development, mood, metabolism, reproduction and organ functions. It is important to make sure the endocrine system is working properly because too little or too much of any hormone can cause complications.

What Makes up the Endocrine System?

The eight major glands that make up the endocrine system are spread all throughout the body. These gland include the:

• 
  Hypothalamus: Located in the lower central part of the brain, this region links to the endocrine and nervous systems.
• 
  Pituitary: ​This gland is located at the base of the brain. Though it is just the size of a pea, it is called the master gland. It produces hormones that regulate the functions of other endocrine system glands.
• 
  Thyroid: Located in the front part of the lower neck, this gland controls the rate at which cells burn fuel for the body. It helps kids and teens grow and develop.
• 
  Parathyroids: Made up of four tiny glands attached to the thyroid, it controls the level of calcium in the blood.
• 
  Adrenals: These two triangular glands on top of each kidney and help control salt and water balance in the body. It also increases ones blood pressure and heart rate when the body is und​er stress.
• 
  Pineal Body: Located in the middle of the brain, this tissue secretes melatonin, which helps regulate sleep.
• 
  Reproductio​n Glands: These glands secrete testosterone or estrogen and progesterone.
• ​​Pancreas: Located at the back of the abdomen behind the stomach, it controls level of sugars in the body and stored energy.​​

​How Can I Keep the Endocrine System Healthy?

To help keep your child’s system healthy, it is important for them to get a lot of exercise, eat a healthy and nutritious diet and get regular check-up​​s. At your child’s check-ups, let your doctor know of any family history of endocrine abnormalities such as thyroid prob​lems or diabetes.

When Should My Child See a Doctor?

It may be time to see a doctor if your child:

• Has to pee often.
• Drinks plenty of water, but is still thirsty.
• Has frequent belly pain or nausea often.
• Is frequently constipated.
• Is losing or gaining a lot of weight.
• Is very tired or weak.
• Suffers from tremors or sweats a lot.
• Is not growing or developing correctly.

​

Health and Safety




Surgery and Hospital Care

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Services. Endocrinology. Veterinary Clinic Vasilek 8 (499) 110-01-05

Endocrinology (from the Greek endon – inside, krino – to separate, logos – teaching) – the science of hormones, the structure, function and diseases of the endocrine glands. Endocrinology closely interacts with almost all areas of veterinary medicine. Often, when a hormonal disorder is taken under control, the patient also has other symptoms that at first glance are not associated with an endocrine disorder. . Since hormones affect all organs, clinical symptoms may be non-specific and masked as other pathologies. Sometimes it happens that a patient comes to a dermatologist, neurologist, ophthalmologist, orthopedic surgeon, and it turns out that these are patients of an endocrinologist.

A veterinary endocrinologist is a doctor who specializes in diseases of the endocrine system, which consists of endocrine glands that produce special chemicals called hormones. Hormones control the functioning of the entire body and are responsible for metabolism.

Endocrine glands or endocrine glands – secrete into the blood various active substances – hormones. Hormones regulate the entire functioning of the body.

Endocrine glands include:

Pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, testes, ovaries.

Violations are of 3 types:

Lack of hormone production – with the prefix “hyper”. The production of hormones usually increases with neoplasms, atrophy, degeneration, inflammation, damage to the tissue of the organ that produces it.

Excess hormone production – most often, the cause is a neoplasm.

Resistance (immunity) of body tissues to hormones. A very serious condition, occurs as a result of autoimmune pathologies or the inability to absorb the hormone. (Insulin resistance is most common in diabetic cats in veterinary medicine.)

Veterinary endocrinology is currently developing very actively, new methods for laboratory research are being discovered, data and results of scientific experiments and works are appearing, shedding light on previously unknown processes. Previously, it was not even technically possible to diagnose certain pathologies, because there were few private laboratories, and even fewer veterinary ones. Now there is a significant leap forward in this area and this has become a hope for all patients with endocrine pathologies! Their number is growing year by year. You can often hear: “Before, they didn’t get sick with anything, now a bunch of diseases have appeared”, this is not true! It’s just now that they have learned to diagnose these pathologies! They have acquired a name, classification, a list of symptoms, explained the pathogenesis and developed treatment algorithms. And everyone who had an indefinite diagnosis: “something with the metabolism” – now have a chance for a cure! True, endocrinology is a complex area of ​​veterinary medicine, and there are few truly competent specialists, which is why it is so important to find an endocrinologist! In the network of veterinary clinics “Vasilek”, a highly qualified veterinarian-endocrinologist Zhemna Viktoria Alekseevna conducts an appointment. She has extensive experience in medical practice in this area.

An endocrinologist most often encounters such endocrine pathologies as:

Diabetes and diabetes insipidus in dogs and cats;

Feline hyperthyroidism and canine hypothyroidism;

Canine hyperadrenocorticism or Cushing’s syndrome

Hypoadrenocorticism or Addison’s disease;

Hyperparathyroidism (colloquially – rickets)

Sertolioma, insulinoma and some others,

as well as diseases dependent on sex hormones – tumors, cysts, reminant syndromes in cats, infertility and others.

It is very difficult to diagnose diseases at the initial stage, since at first the disease develops almost asymptomatically. Most often, these are accidental findings during a planned medical examination or when contacting a veterinarian for a completely different reason. Therefore, it is very important to conduct annual examinations (for example, to coincide with vaccination) and for all animals older than 6-7 years, once a year, conduct a pet examination with the necessary tests.

Unfortunately, all endocrine studies are not cheap. Therefore, it is not recommended to independently try to understand what is happening with the animal by taking various tests on the advice from the Internet. It will be much more economical to immediately seek advice from a specialist. He will prescribe only those tests that are really needed, and not at random, as we often see when they come with a whole bunch of papers … A thorough examination, a survey of the owner and the qualifications of an endocrinologist will immediately identify the most likely diagnoses and prescribe tests that will confirm or rule out suspicions that will arise in him after the examination. And it really can be cheaper than looking for the problem yourself.

Sometimes patients come to an endocrinologist from general practitioners who already have an endocrinological diagnosis, they receive treatment, but there is no or weak result. It is often found that the diagnosis is erroneous. General practitioners usually have only a basic knowledge of this complex discipline, so they often make a diagnosis by measuring the concentration of hormones in the blood. This is not true. Such diagnoses almost always need to be confirmed by specific functional tests. This is due to the fact that the level of hormones in the blood is not constant and even depends on the time of day, on the stage of the sexual cycle, stress, and general well-being. Special tests allow you to evaluate the function of a particular endocrine gland, suppressing or stimulating its work with the help of special preparations. By determining the concentration of a particular hormone before and after using the drug, one can draw conclusions about the insufficiency or excessive function of the gland.

Treatment of endocrine diseases is often lifelong and expensive. Many drugs are not licensed in Russia and have to be imported from abroad. Also, some, even the best of them, have serious side effects. It is very important to monitor treatment and adjust the regimen if necessary.

You can make an appointment with a veterinarian-endocrinologist in Moscow – Zhemna Viktoria Alekseevna by phone +7 (499) 110-01-05 (ext. 3)

An appointment with an endocrinologist is carried out at the branch on Sculptor Mukhina Street, 13.

For your convenience, the clinic has an appointment system by phone. You can learn more about the work of a veterinarian-endocrinologist, schedule a visit and clarify the cost of services by calling the general phone number of the Vasilek clinic network

8 (499) 110-01-05

Adrenal hormones

• DHEA-S (Dehydroepiandrostenedione- sulfate)
• Cortisol

The adrenal glands are small paired endocrine glands located above the upper poles of the kidneys. They consist of an outer layer called the cortex and an inner part called the medulla. Each of the parts is an independent endocrine gland with its own functions. Their common task is the production of hormones, substances that regulate all vital processes in the body. For example, adrenaline (one of the hormones in the medulla) provides a response to sudden danger or pain. When it occurs, the release of adrenaline into the blood mobilizes carbohydrate stores for rapid energy release (increased muscle strength) and causes peripheral vasoconstriction and pupillary dilation. Thus, the body quickly receives reserve forces for “flight or fight” and at the same time an effective mechanism for reducing blood loss, due to vasoconstriction and rapid blood clotting. Adrenaline also stimulates the production of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which, in turn, causes a sharp release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex. This increases the conversion of proteins into glucose, which is necessary to replenish the glycogen stores in the liver and muscles used during the anxiety reaction.

DHEA-S (Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate) is an androgen, a male sex hormone found in the blood of both men and women. It plays an important role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics at puberty and can be converted by the body into the more potent androgens (testosterone and androstenedione) as well as the female sex hormone estrogen. DHEA-S is produced by the adrenal cortex and its production is controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is an informative marker of adrenal function. The analysis is prescribed when establishing the causes of infertility in women, premature puberty in boys, diseases of the adrenal glands, and also in order to distinguish diseases associated with the adrenal glands from diseases caused by dysfunction of the ovaries and testicles.

Cortisol is a hormone produced in the adrenal cortex. Participates in the metabolism of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, in the development of stress reactions, regulates the level of blood pressure.

As soon as we experience physical or psychological stress, the adrenal cortex begins to produce cortisol, which stimulates the heart and concentrates attention, helping the body to cope with the negative effects of the external environment.

Cortisol production is regulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is synthesized in the pituitary gland, a small gland located on the lower part of the brain. The levels of ACTH and cortisol in the blood are regulated by the feedback method – when the concentration of cortisol decreases, the pituitary gland stimulates the production of ACTH, which in turn increases the production of cortisol until it returns to normal. An increase in the concentration of cortisol in the blood, on the contrary, leads to a decrease in the production of ACTH. Thus, the concentration of cortisol in the blood can change, both with an increase or decrease in the release of cortisol itself in the adrenal glands, and ACTH in the pituitary gland.

The study is prescribed as an indicator of the function of the adrenal cortex, to diagnose endocrinological diseases (Itsenko-Cushing’s disease and Addison’s disease), to identify the reasons for the ineffectiveness of attempts to normalize high blood pressure, to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.

All prices, as well as a list of tests performed, can be found in the “Price List” section of the clinical laboratory.